StemCell Therapy

Genetic Discrimination

Many Americans fear that participating in research or undergoing genetic testing will lead to them being discriminated against based on their genetics. Such fears may dissuade patients from volunteering to participate in the research necessary for the development of new tests, therapies and cures, or refusing genomics-based clinical tests. To address this, in 2008 the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act was passed into law, prohibiting discrimination in the workplace and by health insurance issuers. In addition, there are other legal protections against genetic discrimination by employers, issuers of health insurance, and others.

Top of page

GINA protects Americans from discrimination based on their genetic information in both health insurance (Title I) and employment (Title II). Title I amends the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), the Public Health Service Act (PHSA), and the Internal Revenue Code (IRC), through the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), as well as the Social Security Act, to prohibit health insurers from engaging in genetic discrimination.

GINA prohibits issuers of health insurance from discrimination on the basis of the genetic information of enrollees. Specifically, health insurance issuers may not use genetic information to make eligibility, coverage, underwriting or premium-setting decisions. Furthermore, issuers may not request or require individuals or their family members to undergo genetic testing or to provide genetic information. As defined in the law, genetic information includes family medical history and information regarding individuals' and family members' genetic tests.

The regulations governing implementation of GINA in health insurance[hhs.gov]took effect on December 7, 2009 and are implemented by the Internal Revenue Service, Department of Labor, and Department of Health and Human Services. GINA amends HIPAA to clarify that genetic information is health information and provides a finalized rule [hhs.gov] that went into effect March 26, 2013.

GINA prevents employers from using genetic information in employment decisions such as hiring, firing, promotions, pay, and job assignments. Furthermore, GINA prohibits employers or other covered entities (employment agencies, labor organizations, joint labor-management training programs, and apprenticeship programs) from requiring or requesting genetic information and/or genetic tests as a condition of employment. Theregulations [gpo.gov] governing implementation of GINA in employment took effect on January 10, 2011 and are implemented by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

GINA has implications for individuals participating in research studies. The Office of Human Research Protections (OHRP) within the Department of Health and Human Services has issuedguidance on integrating GINA into clinical research, including information on GINA's research exemption, considerations for Institutional Review Boards, and integrating information on GINA into informed consents.

Informed Consent Forms To comply with GINA, informed consent forms should include information on any risks associated with participation in the research project and a statement describing how the confidentiality of records will be maintained. NHGRI has developed guidance for informed consent forms for participants in genomics research.

Follow this link:
Genetic Discrimination - Genome.gov

Renal failure, also known as kidney failure or renal insufficiency, is a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste products from the blood.[1] The two main forms are acute kidney injury, which is often reversible with adequate treatment, and chronic kidney disease, which is often not reversible. In both cases, there is usually an underlying cause.

Renal failure is mainly determined by a decrease in glomerular filtration rate, the rate at which blood is filtered in the glomeruli of the kidney. This is detected by a decrease in or absence of urine production or determination of waste products (creatinine or urea) in the blood. Depending on the cause, hematuria (blood loss in the urine) and proteinuria (protein loss in the urine) may be noted.

In renal failure, there may be problems with increased fluid in the body (leading to swelling), increased acid levels, raised levels of potassium, decreased levels of calcium, increased levels of phosphate, and in later stages anemia. Bone health may also be affected. Long-term kidney problems are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[2]

Renal failure can be divided into two categories: acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease. The type of renal failure is differentiated by the trend in the serum creatinine; other factors that may help differentiate acute kidney injury from chronic kidney disease include anemia and the kidney size on sonography as chronic kidney disease generally leads to anemia and small kidney size.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF),[3][4] is a rapidly progressive loss of renal function,[5] generally characterized by oliguria (decreased urine production, quantified as less than 400 mL per day in adults,[6] less than 0.5 mL/kg/h in children or less than 1 mL/kg/h in infants); and fluid and electrolyte imbalance. AKI can result from a variety of causes, generally classified as prerenal, intrinsic, and postrenal. The underlying cause must be identified and treated to arrest the progress, and dialysis may be necessary to bridge the time gap required for treating these fundamental causes.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) can also develop slowly and, initially, show few symptoms.[7] CKD can be the long term consequence of irreversible acute disease or part of a disease progression.

Acute kidney injuries can be present on top of chronic kidney disease, a condition called acute-on-chronic renal failure (AoCRF). The acute part of AoCRF may be reversible, and the goal of treatment, as with AKI, is to return the patient to baseline renal function, typically measured by serum creatinine. Like AKI, AoCRF can be difficult to distinguish from chronic kidney disease if the patient has not been monitored by a physician and no baseline (i.e., past) blood work is available for comparison.

Symptoms can vary from person to person. Someone in early stage kidney disease may not feel sick or notice symptoms as they occur. When kidneys fail to filter properly, waste accumulates in the blood and the body, a condition called azotemia. Very low levels of azotaemia may produce few, if any, symptoms. If the disease progresses, symptoms become noticeable (if the failure is of sufficient degree to cause symptoms). Renal failure accompanied by noticeable symptoms is termed uraemia.[8]

Symptoms of kidney failure include the following:[8][9][10][11]

Acute kidney injury (previously known as acute renal failure) - or AKI - usually occurs when the blood supply to the kidneys is suddenly interrupted or when the kidneys become overloaded with toxins. Causes of acute kidney injury include accidents, injuries, or complications from surgeries in which the kidneys are deprived of normal blood flow for extended periods of time. Heart-bypass surgery is an example of one such procedure.

Read more:
Renal failure - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kidney failure facts Kidneys are the organs that help filter waste products from the blood. They are also involved in regulating blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and red blood cell production in the body. Symptoms of kidney failure are due to the build-up of waste products in the body that may cause weakness, shortness of breath, lethargy, and confusion. Inability to remove potassium from the bloodstream may lead to abnormal heart rhythms and sudden death. Initially kidney failure may cause no symptoms. There are numerous causes of kidney failure, and treatment of the underlying disease may be the first step in correcting the kidney abnormality. Some causes of kidney failure are treatable and the kidney function may return to normal. Unfortunately, kidney failure may be progressive in other situations and may be irreversible. The diagnosis of kidney failure usually is made by blood tests measuring BUN, creatinine, and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Treatment of the underlying cause of kidney failure may return kidney function to normal. Lifelong efforts to control blood pressure and diabetes may be the best way to prevent chronic kidney disease and its progression to kidney failure. As we age kidney function gradually decreases over time. If the kidneys fail completely, the only treatment options available may be dialysis or transplant. Continue Reading

1/15

Longo DL, et al. Harrisons Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th edition. McGraw Hill Professional. 2011.

Medscape. Renal Failure, Acute.

NIH. Amyloidosis and Kidney Disease. IMAGES:

1. iStock

2. Veer

3. MedicineNet

4. Bigstock

5. iStock

View post:
Kidney Failure: Symptoms, Signs, and Facts - MedicineNet

What Is Kidney Disease?

The kidneys are two organs located in your abdominal cavity on either side of your spine in the middle of your back, just above the waist. They perform several life-sustaining roles: They cleanse your blood by removing waste and excess fluid, maintain the balance of salt and minerals in your blood, and help regulate blood pressure.

When the kidneys become damaged, waste products and fluid can build up in the body, causing swelling in your ankles, vomiting, weakness, poor sleep, and shortness of breath. If left untreated, diseased kidneys may eventually stop functioning completely. Loss of kidney function is a serious -- and potentially fatal -- condition.

Kidney Dialysis

Your kidneys help filter waste, excess fluid, and toxins from your blood. They are also important for blood cell production and bone health. If kidneys don't work properly, harmful substances build up in the body, blood pressure can rise, and too much fluid can collect in the body's tissues, which leads to swelling, called edema. If your kidneys fail, you will need dialysis or a kidney transplant to take over their job.

Read the Kidney Dialysis article > >

Healthy kidneys handle several specific roles. Healthy kidneys:

The sudden loss of kidney function is called acute kidney injury, also known as acute renal failure (ARF). ARF has three main causes:

Common causes include:

View original post here:
Kidney Disease Causes and Basic Information

Kidney disease, also known as Nephropathy, means damage to or disease of a kidney. Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy. Nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease.

Causes of kidney disease include deposition of the IgA antibodies in the glomerulus, administration of analgesics, xanthine oxidase deficiency, toxicity of chemotherapy agents, and long-term exposure to lead or its salts. Chronic conditions that can produce nephropathy include systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure (hypertension), which lead to diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephropathy, respectively.

IgA nephropathy is the most common glomerulonephritis throughout the world [1] Primary IgA nephropathy is characterized by deposition of the IgA antibody in the glomerulus. The classic presentation (in 40-50% of the cases) is episodic frank hematuria which usually starts within a day or two of a non-specific upper respiratory tract infection (hence synpharyngitic) as opposed to post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis which occurs some time (weeks) after initial infection. Less commonly gastrointestinal or urinary infection can be the inciting agent. All of these infections have in common the activation of mucosal defenses and hence IgA antibody production.

One cause of nephropathy is the long term usage of analgesics. The pain medicines which can cause kidney problems include aspirin, acetaminophen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or NSAIDs. This form of nephropathy is "chronic analgesic nephritis," a chronic inflammatory change characterized by loss and atrophy of tubules and interstitial fibrosis and inflammation (BRS Pathology, 2nd edition).

Specifically, long term use of the analgesic phenacetin has been linked to renal papillary necrosis (necrotizing papillitis).

Kidney disease induced by iodinated contrast media (ICM) is called CIN (= contrast induced nephropathy) or contrast-indueced AKI (= Acute kidney injury). Currently, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. But there is a body of evidence that several factors including apoptosis-induction seem to play a role.[2]

Another possible cause of Kidney disease is due to decreased function of xanthine oxidase in the purine degradation pathway. Xanthine oxidase will degrade hypoxanthine to xanthine and then to uric acid. Xanthine is not very soluble in water; therefore, an increase in xanthine forms crystals (which can lead to kidney stones) and result in damage of the kidney. Xanthine oxidase inhibitors, like allopurinol, can cause nephropathy.

Additional possible cause of nephropathy is due to the formation of cysts or pockets containing fluid within the kidneys. These cysts get enlarged with the progression of aging causing renal failure. Cysts may also form in other organs including the liver, brain and ovaries. Polycystic Kidney Disease is a genetic disease caused by mutations in the PKD1, PKD2, and PKHD1 genes. This disease affects about half a million people in the US. Polycystic kidneys are susceptible to infections and cancer.

Nephropathy can be associated with some therapies used to treat cancer. The most common form of kidney disease in cancer patients is Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) which can usually be due to volume depletion from vomiting and diarrhea that occur following chemotherapy or occasionally due to kidney toxicities of chemotherapeutic agents. Kidney failure from break down of cancer cells, usually after chemotherapy, is unique to onconephrology. Several chemotherapeutic agents, for example Cisplatin, are associated with acute and chronic kidney injuries.[3] Newer agents such as anti Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (anti VEGF) are also associated with similar injuries, as well as proteinuria, hypertension and thrombotic microangiopathy.[4]

Kidney disease is a chronic non-communicable disease, having serious consequence if it can not be controlled effectively. Generally, the process of kidney disease development is from light to serious. The process of most kidney diseases is renal Insufficiency, renal failure, and then uremia.

Original post:
Kidney disease - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Integrative medicine, which is also called integrated medicine and integrative health in the United Kingdom,[1] combines alternative medicine with evidence-based medicine. Proponents claim that it treats the "whole person," focuses on wellness and health rather than on treating disease, and emphasizes the patient-physician relationship.[1][2][3][4]

Integrative medicine has been criticized for compromising the effectiveness of mainstream medicine through inclusion of ineffective alternative remedies,[5] and for claiming it is distinctive in taking a rounded view of a person's health.[6]

The Consortium of Academic Health Centers for Integrative Medicine defines it as "the practice of medicine that reaffirms the importance of the relationship between practitioner and patient, focuses on the whole person, is informed by evidence, and makes use of all appropriate therapeutic approaches, healthcare professionals and disciplines to achieve optimal health and healing".[7] Proponents say integrative medicine is not the same as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)[1][8] nor is it simply the combination of conventional medicine with complementary and alternative medicine.[2] They say instead that it "emphasizes wellness and healing of the entire person (bio-psycho-socio-spiritual dimensions) as primary goals, drawing on both conventional and CAM approaches in the context of a supportive and effective physician-patient relationship".[2]

Critics of integrative medicine see it as being synonymous with complementary medicine, or as "woo".[9]David Gorski has written that the term "integrative medicine" has become the currently preferred term for non-science based medicine.[10]

In the 1990s, physicians in the United States became increasingly interested in integrating alternative approaches into their medical practice, as shown by a 1995 survey in which 80% of family practice physicians expressed an interest in receiving training in acupuncture, hypnotherapy, and massage therapy.[11] In the mid-1990s hospitals in the United States began opening integrative medicine clinics, which numbered 27 by 2001.[11] The Consortium of Academic Health Centers for Integrative Medicine was founded in 1999 and by 2015 included 60 members, such as Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Georgetown University School of Medicine, and Mayo Clinic. The goal of the Consortium is to advance the practice of integrative medicine by bringing together medical colleges that include integrative medicine in their medical education.[1][12][13] The American Board of Physician Specialties, which awards board certification to medical doctors in the U.S., announced in June 2013 that in 2014 it would begin accrediting doctors in integrative medicine.[14]

Medical professor John McLachlan has written in the BMJ that the reason for the creation of integrative medicine was as a rebranding exercise, and that the term is a replacement for the increasingly discredited one of "complementary and alternative medicine".[6] McLachlan writes that it is an "insult" that integrative medical practitioners claim unto themselves the unique distinction of taking into account "their patients' individuality, autonomy, and views", since these are intrinsic aspects of mainstream practice.[6]

Proponents of integrative medicine say that the impetus for the adoption of integrative medicine stems in part from the fact that an increasing percentage of the population is consulting complementary medicine practitioners. Some medical professionals feel a need to learn more about complementary medicine so they can better advise their patients which treatments may be useful and which are "ridiculous".[8] In addition, they say that some doctors and patients are unsatisfied with what they perceive as a focus on using pharmaceuticals to treat or suppress a specific disease rather than on helping a patient to become healthy. They take the view that it is important to go beyond the specific complaint and draw upon a combination of conventional and alternative approaches to help create a state of health that is more than the absence of disease.[2] Proponents further suggest that physicians have become so specialized that their traditional role of comprehensive caregiver who focuses on healing and wellness has been neglected.[1] In addition, some patients may seek help from outside the medical mainstream for difficult-to-treat clinical conditions, such as fibromyalgia and irritable bowel syndrome.[1]

Integrative medicine is sometimes lumped together with alternative medicine, which has received criticism and has been called "snake oil."[9][15] A primary issue is whether alternative practices have been objectively tested. In a 1998 article in The New Republic, Arnold S. Relman, a former editor of The New England Journal of Medicine stated that "There are not two kinds of medicine, one conventional and the other unconventional, that can be practiced jointly in a new kind of 'integrative medicine.' Nor, as Andrew Weil and his friends also would have us believe, are there two kinds of thinking, or two ways to find out which treatments work and which do not. In the best kind of medical practice, all proposed treatments must be tested objectively. In the end, there will only be treatments that pass that test and those that do not, those that are proven worthwhile and those that are not".[5]

In order to objectively test alternative medicine treatments, in 1991 the U.S. government established the Office of Alternative Medicine, which in 1998 was re-established as the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) as one of the National Institutes of Health. In 2015, NCCAM was re-established as the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). The mission of NCCIH is "to define, through rigorous scientific investigation, the usefulness and safety of complementary and integrative interventions and to provide the public with research-based information to guide health-care decision making."[16] However, skeptic Steven Novella, a neurologist at Yale School of Medicine, said that NCCAM's activities are "used to lend an appearance of legitimacy to treatments that are not legitimate".[9] The NCCAM website states that there is "emerging evidence that some of the perceived benefits are real or meaningful". NCCAM also says that "the scientific evidence is limited" and "In many instances, a lack of reliable data makes it difficult for people to make informed decisions about using integrative health care".[17]

A 2001 editorial in BMJ said that integrative medicine was less recognized in the UK than in the United States.[8] The universities of Buckingham and Westminster had offered courses in integrative medicine, for which they were criticized.[18][19][20] In the UK organizations such as The Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health, The College of Medicine[21] and The Sunflower Jam[22] advocate or raise money for integrative medicine.

Read more:
Integrative medicine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Founded in 1991 by Brian Berman, M.D., the Center for Integrative Medicine (CIM) is an inter-departmental center within the University of Maryland School of Medicine. A leading international center for research, patient care, education and training in integrative medicine, the CIM is a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Center of Excellence for research in complementary medicine.

Emphasizing an approach to healing that values mind, body, and spirit, the Center is committed to:

Join us for a transformative week of healing: June 21 - June 27, 2015

Be part of a University of Maryland, Baltimore study on the role of faith and spirituality in bereavement. This study is an intervention designed to help people who are grieving the loss of a loved one. There is no cost to participants.

Learn more and see if you are eligible to participate.

Join us for our Integrative Medicine Journal Club. Meetings will take place in the East Hall Conference Room at 520 W. Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.

Contact Dr. Kevin Chen for dates and details.

Visit link:
Center for Integrative Medicine: University of Maryland ...

Learn About Featured Educational Offerings Interprofessional Training Programs

Integrative Health & Lifestyle (IHeLp) - This online innovative, interprofessional program provides a strong foundation in integrative health, emphasizing the key role of lifestyle changes, while applying value-driven healthy behavior change via self-care assignments and group work. It is a pre-requisite to our new Integrative Health Coaching program. Learn more about this program >>

Introduction to Integrative Oncology - Credit Available! It is estimated that a great majority of cancer patients are using complementary therapies, in addition to conventional care. As patients face a life-threatening diagnosis out of their control, they turn to therapies that offer hope and a regained sense of empowerment. Learn about controlling weight, the impact of nutrition, dietary supplements, stress reduction, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chemo-CAM interactions and more. Learn more about this course offering >>

Aromatherapy & Health: An Introduction - Credit Available! The use of essential oils is gaining attention in health care. They offer another tool that is simple, effective and inexpensive. Aromatherapy is making inroads into hospitals and health care practices around the world. This branch of phytotherapy can be safely employed in most situations to complement and enhance treatments, often with notable results. Learn more about this course offering >>

Dr. Maizes on considering environmental toxins as a cause of disease.

Managing your allergies can involve both medication and lifestyle factors. Dr. Horwitz explains.

AzCIM faculty Dr. Rubin Naiman on the importance of the process of dreaming.

AzCIM Executive Director Victoria Maizes, MD, weighs on the dietary supplement case in New York.

Breathe properly, avoid processed foods, and trust your body's ability to heal. Advice from Andrew Weil, MD in a Men's Journal interview.

Join the Center mailing list to receive more information about workshops, conferences, lectures, online courses, and educational programs.

Continued here:
Home: Arizona Center for Integrative Medicine

The Integrative Medicine Program engages patients and their families to become active participants in improving their physical, psycho-spiritual and social health. The ultimate goals are to optimize health, quality of life and clinical outcomes through personalized evidence-based clinical care, exceptional research and education.

We provide access to multiple data bases of authoritative, up to date reviews on the evidence and safety for the use of herbs, supplements, vitamins, and minerals, as well as other complementary medicine modalities.

To support our efforts in clinical care, research, education and training please consider a donation.

If you are interested in our clinical services and free group classes please visit our Integrative Medicine Center.

Our research focuses on reducing the negative consequences of cancer diagnosis and treatment through studying the use of modalities such as acupuncture, meditation and yoga to treat side effects and improve quality of life. We study the use of plants and other natural compounds to treat cancer and cancer-related symptoms. We also examine the benefits of physical activity, nutrition, stress management and social support on health outcomes.

The goal of the education is to provide authoritative, evidence-based information for health care professionals, caregivers and patients who would like to safely incorporate complementary medicine therapies with conventional cancer care. Our Integrative Medicine Program offers educational activities and trainings, such as a monthly Lecture Series , Research Club, Journal Club, Integrative Oncology Education Series, conferences and workshops.

Read the original:
Integrative Medicine Program - MD Anderson

The immune system is a system of many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral immunity versus cell-mediated immunity.

Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutralization by the immune system; however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a rudimentary immune system, in the form of enzymes that protect against bacteriophage infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants and insects. These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system. Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms,[1] including the ability to adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.

Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer.[2][3]Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.

Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known reference to immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.[4] In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.[5] This and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease.[6] Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease.[7] Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.[8]

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity.[9] Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Metchnikoff.[10]

The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals.[11] If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.[12]

Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system.[13] Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.[14]

Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms,[15] or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which (but not all) are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens.[16] Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way.[14] This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms.[11]

Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection.[14] However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.[17]

Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the -defensins.[18]Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials.[19][20]Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens.[21][22] In the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens.

Read more here:
Immune system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Inside your body there is an amazing protection mechanism called the immune system. It is designed to defend you against millions of bacteria, microbes, viruses, toxins and parasites that would love to invade your body. To understand the power of the immune system, all that you have to do is look at what happens to anything once it dies. That sounds gross, but it does show you something very important about your immune system.

When something dies, its immune system (along with everything else) shuts down. In a matter of hours, the body is invaded by all sorts of bacteria, microbes, parasites... None of these things are able to get in when your immune system is working, but the moment your immune system stops the door is wide open. Once you die it only takes a few weeks for these organisms to completely dismantle your body and carry it away, until all that's left is a skeleton. Obviously your immune system is doing something amazing to keep all of that dismantling from happening when you are alive.

The immune system is complex, intricate and interesting. And there are at least two good reasons for you to know more about it. First, it is just plain fascinating to understand where things like fevers, hives, inflammation, etc., come from when they happen inside your own body. You also hear a lot about the immune system in the news as new parts of it are understood and new drugs come on the market -- knowing about the immune system makes these news stories understandable. In this article, we will take a look at how your immune system works so that you can understand what it is doing for you each day, as well as what it is not.

See the rest here:
How Your Immune System Works - HowStuffWorks

On the whole, your immune system does a remarkable job of defending you against disease-causing microorganisms. But sometimes it fails: A germ invades successfully and makes you sick. Is it possible to intervene in this process and make your immune system stronger? What if you improve your diet? Take certain vitamins or herbal preparations? Make other lifestyle changes in the hope of producing a near-perfect immune response?

The idea of boosting your immunity is enticing, but the ability to do so has proved elusive for several reasons. The immune system is precisely that a system, not a single entity. To function well, it requires balance and harmony. There is still much that researchers don't know about the intricacies and interconnectedness of the immune response. For now, there are no scientifically proven direct links between lifestyle and enhanced immune function.

But that doesn't mean the effects of lifestyle on the immune system aren't intriguing and shouldn't be studied. Quite a number of researchers are exploring the effects of diet, exercise, age, psychological stress, herbal supplements, and other factors on the immune response, both in animals and in humans. Although interesting results are emerging, thus far they can only be considered preliminary. That's because researchers are still trying to understand how the immune system works and how to interpret measurements of immune function. The following sections summarize some of the most active areas of research into these topics. In the meantime, general healthy-living strategies are a good way to start giving your immune system the upper hand.

Immunity in action. A healthy immune system can defeat invading pathogens as shown above, where two bacteria that cause gonorrhea are no match for the large phagocyte, called a neutrophil, that engulfs and kills them (see arrows).

Photos courtesy of Michael N. Starnbach, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School

Your first line of defense is to choose a healthy lifestyle. Following general good-health guidelines is the single best step you can take toward keeping your immune system strong and healthy. Every part of your body, including your immune system, functions better when protected from environmental assaults and bolstered by healthy-living strategies such as these:

Don't smoke.

Eat a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and low in saturated fat.

Exercise regularly.

Read more:
How to boost your immune system - Harvard Health

Hank tells us about the team of deadly ninja assassins that is tasked with protecting our bodies from all the bad guys that want to kill us - also known as our immune system.

Crash Course Biology is now available on DVD! http://dft.ba/-8bCC

Like CrashCourse - http://www.facebook.com/YouTubeCrashC... Follow CrashCourse - http://www.twitter.com/TheCrashCourse

Table of Contents 1) Innate Immune System 1:45 a) Mucous Membranes 2:54 b) Inflammatory Response 3:44 c) Leukocytes 4:45

2) Open Letter 6:33 a) Natural Killer Cells 6:56 b) Dendritic Cells 7:57

3) Acquired Immune System 8:36 a) Antibodies 9:08 b) Lymphocytes 9:48 c) Cell-Mediated Response 10:17 d) Humoral Response 13:00

References Campbell Biology, 9th ed. http://faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP2p... http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites...

This video uses the following sounds from Freesound.org: "Pigs-01.flac" by Erdie "straw slurp.wav" by dparke4 "Disgusting Slop.wav" by Ighuaran "Sonar Ping.wav" by digifishmusic "Swishes.wav" by Pogotron "swing.mp3" by morgantj

crash course, crashcourse, biology, immune system, anatomy, physiology, human, health, microscopic, pus, pathogen, bacteria, body, organism, virus, immunity, innate, acquired, animal, vertebrate, germ, skin, mucous membrane, digestive tract, mucus, inflammatory response, mast cells, histamine, allergic, allergy, infection, phagocyte, macrophage, natural killer cell, lymphocytes, white blood cells, antigen, t cell, humoral response Support CrashCourse on Subbable: http://subbable.com/crashcourse

Read the original post:
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course ...

Edwards, K.M., Burns V.E., Reynolds, T., Carroll, D., Drayson, M., & Ring, C. (2006). Acute stress exposure prior to influenza vaccination enhances antibody response in women. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 20:159-68.

Glaser, R., Sheridan, J. F., Malarkey, W. B., MacCallum, R. C., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2000). Chronic stress modulates the immune response to a pneumococcal pneumonia vaccine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 804-807.

Glaser, R., Robles, T. F., Malarkey, W. B., Sheridan, J. F., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2003). Mild depressive symptoms are associated with amplified and prolonged inflammatory responses following influenza vaccination in older adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1009-1014.

Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Glaser, R. (1993). Mind and immunity. In: D. Goleman & J. Gurin, (Eds.) Mind/Body Medicine (pp. 39-59). New York: Consumer Reports.

Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Glaser, R. (2002). Depression and immune function: Central pathways to morbidity and mortality. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 873-876.

Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T., & Glaser, R. (2002). Psychoneuroimmunology: Psychological influences on immune function and health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 537-547.

Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T., & Glaser, R. (2002). Psychoneuroimmunology and psychosomatic medicine: Back to the future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 15-28.

Pressman, S. D., Cohen, S., Miller, G.E., Barkin, A., Rabin, B. S., Treanor, J. J. (2005). Loneliness, Social Network Size and Immune Response to Influenza Vaccination in College Freshmen, Health Psychology, 24, pages.

Robinson-Whelen, S., Tada, Y., MacCallum, R. C., McGuire, L., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2001). Long-term caregiving: What happens when it ends? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 573-584.

Segerstrom, S. C. and Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 130, No. 4.

Read this article:
Stress Weakens the Immune System

DNA from the Beginning is organized around key concepts. The science behind each concept is explained by: animation, image gallery, video interviews, problem, biographies, and links. DNAftb blog: It's the season of hibernation, something I've always wished I could do. Oh, to wrap up in a ball, sleep away the winter, and wake to a beautiful spring day like Bambi! Although the thought has always intrigued me, it never really occurred to me what a feat hibernation actually is. It turns out that all of the bears, squirrels, rabbits ... that I thought were just sleeping, are breaking biological laws!! If I was to stay dormant for 5 months, without food or drink and little to no movement in freezing temperatures [...] Feature: We have relaunched the Weed to Wonder site as a flexible "e-book" that can be viewed as a website, an app, or a printable PDF. Mailing List Gene News - Scientists stumble across unknown stem-cell type Find the DNALC on: Language options:

See original here:
DNA from the Beginning - An animated primer of 75 ...

A chimera (also spelled chimaera) (from the creature Chimera in Greek mythology) is a single organism composed of genetically distinct cells. This can result in male and female organs, two different blood types, or subtle variations in form.[1] Animal chimeras are produced by the merger of multiple fertilized eggs. In plant chimeras, however, the distinct types of tissue may originate from the same zygote, and the difference is often due to mutation during ordinary cell division. Normally, chimerism is not visible on casual inspection; however, it has been detected in the course of proving parentage.[2]

Another way that chimerism can occur in animals is by organ transplantation, giving one individual tissues that developed from two different genomes. For example, a bone marrow transplant can change someone's blood type.

An animal chimera is a single organism that is composed of two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells that originated from different zygotes involved in sexual reproduction. If the different cells have emerged from the same zygote, the organism is called a mosaic. Chimeras are formed from at least four parent cells (two fertilized eggs or early embryos fused together). Each population of cells keeps its own character and the resulting organism is a mixture of tissues. There are some reports of human chimerism.[1]

This condition is either inherited or it is acquired through the infusion of allogeneic hematopoietic cells during transplantation or transfusion. In nonidentical twins, chimerism occurs by means of blood-vessel anastomoses. The likelihood of offspring being a chimera is increased if it is created via in vitro fertilization[citation needed].[3] Chimeras can often breed, but the fertility and type of offspring depends on which cell line gave rise to the ovaries or testes; varying degrees of intersex differences may result if one set of cells is genetically female and another genetically male.

Tetragametic chimerism is a form of congenital chimerism. This condition occurs through the fertilization of two separate ova by two sperm, followed by aggregation of the two at the blastocyst or zygote stages. This results in the development of an organism with intermingled cell lines. Put another way, the chimera is formed from the merging of two nonidentical twins (although a similar merging presumably occurs with identical twins, but as their DNA is almost identical, the presence would not be immediately detectable in a very early (zygote or blastocyst) phase). As such, they can be male, female, or have mixed intersex characteristics.

As the organism develops, it can come to possess organs that have different sets of chromosomes. For example, the chimera may have a liver composed of cells with one set of chromosomes and have a kidney composed of cells with a second set of chromosomes. This has occurred in humans, and at one time was thought to be extremely rare, though more recent evidence suggests that it is not as rare as previously believed.[1][4]

This is particularly true for the marmoset. Recent research shows most marmosets are chimeras, sharing DNA with their fraternal twins.[5] 95% of Marmoset fraternal twins trade blood through chorionic fusions, making them hematopoietic chimeras.[6][7]

Most chimeras will go through life without realizing they are chimeras. The difference in phenotypes may be subtle (e.g., having a hitchhiker's thumb and a straight thumb, eyes of slightly different colors, differential hair growth on opposite sides of the body, etc.) or completely undetectable. Chimeras may also show, under a certain spectrum of UV light, distinctive marks on the back resembling that of arrow points pointing downwards from the shoulders down to the lower back; this is one expression of pigment unevenness called Blaschko's lines.[8]

Affected persons may be identified by the finding of two populations of red cells or, if the zygotes are of opposite sex, ambiguous genitalia and intersex alone or in combination; such persons sometimes also have patchy skin, hair, or eye pigmentation (heterochromia). If the blastocysts are of opposite sex, genitals of both sexes may be formed: either ovary and testis, or combined ovotestes, in one rare form of intersex, a condition previously known as true hermaphroditism.

Note that the frequency of this condition does not indicate the true prevalence of chimerism. Most chimeras composed of both male and female cells probably do not have an intersex condition, as might be expected if the two cell populations were evenly blended throughout the body. Often, most or all of the cells of a single cell type will be composed of a single cell line, i.e. the blood may be composed predominantly of one cell line, and the internal organs of the other cell line. Genitalia produce the hormones responsible for other sex characteristics. If the sex organs are homogeneous, the individual will not be expected to exhibit any intersex traits.

Read the original:
Chimera (genetics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

GENETIC TESTING TIME TOOLA Resource from the American College of Preventive Medicine

CLINICAL REFERENCEThe following Clinical Reference Document provides the evidence to support the Genetic Testing Time Tool. The following bookmarks are available to move around the Clinical Reference Document. You may also download a printable version for future reference.

Human genomics, the study of structure, function, and interactions of all genes in the human genome, promises to improve the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The proliferation of genetic tests has been greatly accelerated by the Human Genome Project over the last decade. [1]

Meanwhile, practicing physicians and health professionals need to be trained in the principles, applications, and the limitations of genomics and genomic medicine. [2]

Over 1,500 genetic tests are now available clinically, with nearly 300 more available on a research basis only. The number of genetic tests is predicted to increase by 25% annually. [3] There is a boom in the development of genetic tests using the scanning technology from the Genome Project, but questions remain regarding the validity and usefulness of these newer tests.

Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [6]

Phenotype: The observable properties of an individual that are the product of interactions between the genotype and the environment. [6] Nucleotides: The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. [6]

Oligonucleotide: A relatively short single-stranded nucleic-acid chain usually consisting of 2 to 20 nucleotides that is synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe. [6]

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP): A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population. [6]

Penetrance: The probability of developing the disease in those who have the mutation. [6]

Read more:
Genetic Testing Clinical Reference For Clinicians ...

Kids with Down syndrome tend to share certain physical features such as a flat facial profile, an upward slant to the eyes, small ears, and a protruding tongue.

Low muscle tone (called hypotonia) is also characteristic of children with DS, and babies in particular may seem especially "floppy." Though this can and often does improve over time, most children with DS typically reach developmental milestones like sitting up, crawling, and walking later than other kids.

At birth, kids with DS are usually of average size, but they tend to grow at a slower rate and remain smaller than their peers. For infants, low muscle tone may contribute to sucking and feeding problems, as well as constipation and other digestive issues. Toddlers and older kids may have delays in speech and self-care skills like feeding, dressing, and toilet teaching.

Down syndrome affects kids' ability to learn in different ways, but most have mild to moderate intellectual impairment. Kids with DS can and do learn, and are capable of developing skills throughout their lives. They simply reach goals at a different pace which is why it's important not to compare a child with DS against typically developing siblings or even other children with the condition.

Kids with DS have a wide range of abilities, and there's no way to tell at birth what they will be capable of as they grow up.

While some kids with DS have no significant health problems, others may experience a host of medical issues that require extra care. For example, almost half of all children born with DS will have a congenital heart defect.

Kids with Down syndrome are also at an increased risk of developing pulmonary hypertension, a serious condition that can lead to irreversible damage to the lungs. All infants with Down syndrome should be evaluated by a pediatric cardiologist.

Approximately half of all kids with DS also have problems with hearing and vision. Hearing loss can be related to fluid buildup in the inner ear or to structural problems of the ear itself. Vision problems commonly include strabismus (cross-eyed), near- or farsightedness, and an increased risk of cataracts.

Regular evaluations by an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat doctor), audiologist, and an ophthalmologist are necessary to detect and correct any problems before they affect language and learning skills.

Other medical conditions that may occur more frequently in kids with DS include thyroid problems, intestinal abnormalities, seizure disorders, respiratory problems, obesity, an increased susceptibility to infection, and a higher risk of childhood leukemia. Upper neck abnormalities are sometimes found and should be evaluated by a doctor (these can be detected by cervical spine X-rays). Fortunately, many of these conditions are treatable.

Excerpt from:
Kids Health - Down Syndrome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations.

An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria generated in 1973 and GM mice in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States December in 2003.[1]

Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.

IUPAC definition

Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics.

Note: Adapted from ref.[2][3]

Genetic engineering alters the genetic make-up of an organism using techniques that remove heritable material or that introduce DNA prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with the host.[4] This involves using recombinant nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection and micro-encapsulation techniques.

Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional animal and plant breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process.[4] However the European Commission has also defined genetic engineering broadly as including selective breeding and other means of artificial selection.[5]Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering,[6] are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.[7]Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized material from raw materials into an organism.[8]

If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic.[9] Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a gene knockout organism.[10] In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods.[11][12] The Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin. In other words, a product is regulated as genetically modified if it carries some trait not previously found in the species whether it was generated using traditional breeding methods (e.g., selective breeding, cell fusion, mutation breeding) or genetic engineering.[13][14][15] Within the scientific community, the term genetic engineering is not commonly used; more specific terms such as transgenic are preferred.

Plants, animals or micro organisms that have changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs.[16] Bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be inserted into the bacterial cell and the bacteria will then express those genes. These genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates.[17][18] Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines.[19] Most commercialised GMO's are insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants.[20] Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. They include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.[21]

View original post here:
Genetic engineering - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Genetic engineering (GE) is the modification of an organisms genetic composition by artificial means, often involving the transfer of specific traits, or genes, from one organism into a plant or animal of an entirely different species. When gene transfer occurs, the resulting organism is called transgenic or a GMO (genetically modified organism).

Genetic engineering is different from traditional cross breeding, where genes can only be exchanged between closely related species. With genetic engineering, genes from completely different species can be inserted into one another. For example, scientists in Taiwan have successfully inserted jellyfish genes into pigs in order to make them glow in the dark.

All life is made up of one or more cells. Each cell contains a nucleus, and inside each nucleus are strings of molecules called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each strand of DNA is divided into small sections called genes. These genes contain a unique set of instructions that determine how the organism grows, develops, looks, and lives.

During genetic engineering processes, specific genes are removed from one organism and inserted into another plant or animal, thus transferring specific traits.

Nearly 400 million acres of farmland worldwide are now used to grow GE crops such as cotton, corn, soybeans and rice. In the United States, GE soybeans, corn and cotton make up 93%, 88% and 94% of the total acreage of the respective crops. The majority of genetically engineered crops grown today are engineered to be resistant to pesticides and/or herbicides so that they can withstand being sprayed with weed killer while the rest of the plants in the field die.

GE proponents claim genetically engineered crops use fewer pesticides than non-GE crops, when in reality GE plants can require even more chemicals. This is because weeds become resistant to pesticides, leading farmers to spray even more on their crops. This pollutes the environment, exposes food to higher levels of toxins, and creates greater safety concerns for farmers and farm workers.

Some GE crops are actually classified as pesticides. For instance, the New Leaf potato, which has since been taken off grocery shelves, was genetically engineered to produce the Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) toxin in order to kill any pests that attempted to eat it. The actual potato was designated as a pesticide and was therefore regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), instead of the Food & Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates food. Because of this, safety testing for these potatoes was not as rigorous as with food, since the EPA regulations had never anticipated that people would intentionally consume pesticides as food.

Adequate research has not yet been carried out to identify the effects of eating animals that have been fed genetically engineered grain, nor have sufficient studies been conducted on the effects of directly consuming genetically engineered crops like corn and soy. Yet despite our lack of knowledge, GE crops are widely used throughout the world as both human and animal food.

Scientists are currently working on ways to genetically engineer farm animals. Atlantic salmon have been engineered to grow to market size twice as fast as wild salmon, chickens have been engineered so that they cannot spread H5N1 avian flu to other birds, and research is being conducted to create cattle that cannot develop the infectious prions that can cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy (aka mad cow disease). At this point, no GE animals have been approved by the FDA to enter the food supply. Genetic engineering experiments on animals do, however, pose potential risks to food safety and the environment.

In 2003, scientists at the University of Illinois were conducting an experiment that involved inserting cow genes into female pigs in order to increase their milk production. They also inserted a synthetic gene to make milk digestion easier for the piglets. Although the experimental pigs were supposed to be destroyed, as instructed by the FDA, 386 offspring of the experimental pigs were sold to slaughterhouses, where they were processed and sent to grocery stores as pork chops, sausage, and bacon.

Read the original:
Sustainable Table | Genetic Engineering