StemCell Therapy

Millions of people suffer from painful and swollen joints associated with arthritis. In the past, many doctors told arthritis patients that dietary changes would not help them. However, this conclusion was based on older research with diets that included dairy products, oil, poultry, or meat.1,2 New research shows that foods may be a more frequent contributor to arthritis than is commonly recognized. It is clear that, at least for some people, a healthier menu is the answer.

Arthritis is actually a group of different diseases. Osteoarthritis is a gradual loss of cartilage and overgrowth of bone in the joints, especially the knees, hips, spine, and fingertips. Over 20 million Americans, mostly over age 45, suffer from osteoarthritis, which seems to be the result of accumulated wear and tear. Although it can cause painful episodes, it is characterized by only transient stiffness and does not cause major interference with the use of the hands.

Rheumatoid arthritis, which affects over 2 million people, is a more aggressive form of the disease. It causes painful, inflamed joints, which sometimes become damaged.

Rheumatoid arthritis is one of medicine's mysteries. There were no medical reports of the disease until the early 1800s. Some have suspected that a virus or bacterium may play a role, perhaps by setting off an autoimmune reaction. Genetics may also be a factor, in that it may influence susceptibility to the disease.

For years people have suspected that foods are an important factor in the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Many notice an improvement in their condition when they avoid dairy products, citrus fruits, tomatoes, eggplant and certain other foods.

Initially, the evidence was anecdotal. A woman from the Midwest once suffered from painful arthritis. Today she is a picture of health, thin and athletic, and her arthritis is totally gone. It seemed that dairy products were to blame for her arthritis, for when she eliminated them from her diet, the arthritis disappeared completely.

Another woman, from Wisconsin, also found that her arthritis was clearly linked to dairy products. Although she had been raised on a dairy farm, she learned that staying away from dairy products was the key to relieving her symptoms.

A 1989 survey of over one thousand arthritis patients revealed that the foods most commonly believed to worsen the condition were red meat, sugar, fats, salt, caffeine, and nightshade plants (e.g., tomatoes, eggplant).3 Once the offending food is eliminated completely, improvement usually comes within a few weeks. Dairy foods are one of the principle offenders, and the problem is the dairy protein, rather than the fat, so skim products are as much a problem as whole milk.4

An increasing volume of research shows that certain dietary changes do in fact help. For example, polyunsaturated oils and omega-3 supplements have a mild beneficial effect, and researchers have found that vegan diets are beneficial.5 One 2002 study looked at the influence of a very low-fat vegan diet on subjects with moderate-to-severe RA. After only four weeks on the diet, almost all measures of RA symptoms decreased significantly.6 The journal Rheumatology published a study that found a gluten-free vegan diet improved the signs and symptoms of RA.7 An uncooked vegan diet, rich in antioxidants and fiber was shown in another study to decrease joint stiffness and pain in patients with RA.8 Some research studies have looked at fasting followed by a vegetarian or vegan diet. A review of multiple research studies concluded that this dietary treatment might be useful in the treatment of RA.9

Vegan diets dramatically reduce the overall amount of fat in the diet, and alter the composition of fats. This in turn can affect the immune processes that influence arthritis. The omega-3 fatty acids in vegetables may be a key factor, along with the near absence of saturated fat. The fact that patients also lose weight on a vegan diet contributes to the improvement.

In addition, vegetables are rich in antioxidants, which can neutralize free radicals. Oxygen free radicals attack many parts of the body and contribute to heart disease and cancer, and intensify the aging processes generally, including of the joints.

Iron acts as a catalyst, encouraging the production of these dangerous molecules. Vitamins C and E, which are plentiful in a diet made of vegetables and grains, help neutralize free radicals. Meats supply an overload of iron, no vitamin C, and very little vitamin E, whereas vegetables contain more controlled amounts of iron, and generous quantities of antioxidant vitamins.

As well as being helpful in preventing arthritis, antioxidants may also have a role in reducing its symptoms. Some arthritis treatments, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, work at least in part by neutralizing free radicals. For the most part, however, vitamins and other antioxidants will be of more use in preventing damage before it occurs, rather than in treating an inflamed joint.10

A diet drawn from fruits, vegetables, grains, and beans therefore appears to be helpful in preventing and, in some cases, ameliorating arthritis.

For four weeks, include generous amounts of foods from the pain-safe list in your routine.

At the same time, scrupulously avoid the major triggers.

It is important to avoid these foods completely, as even a small amount can cause symptoms.

Foods that are not on either list can be consumed, so long as you are emphasizing the arthritis-safe foods and scrupulously avoiding the major triggers.

You may well experience benefits earlier than four weeks, but for some people it can take this long for chronically inflamed joints to cool down.

Pain-safe foods virtually never contribute to arthritis or other painful conditions. These include

After four weeks, if your symptoms have improved or disappeared, the next step is to nail down which one or more of the trigger foods has been causing your problem. Simply reintroduce the foods you have eliminated back into your diet one at a time, every two days.

Have a generous amount of each newly reintroduced food, and see whether your joints flare up again. If so, eliminate the food that seems to have caused the problem, and let your joints cool down again. Then continue to reintroduce the other foods. Wait at least two weeks before trying a problem food a second time. Many people have more than one food trigger.

It is not recommended to bring meats, dairy products, or eggs back into your diet. Not only are they major triggers, but they also encourage hormone imbalances that may contribute to joint pain, and also lead to many other health problems.

1. Dairy products* 2. Corn 3. Meats** 4. Wheat, oats, rye 5. Eggs 6. Citrus fruits 7. Potatoes 8. Tomatoes 9. Nuts 10. Coffee *All dairy products should be avoided: skim or whole cows milk, goats milk, cheese, yogurt, etc. **All meats should be avoided: beef, pork, chicken, turkey, fish, etc.

For some arthritis patients, supplements of certain essential fatty acids have been helpful. They should be thought of as a medicine, rather than a food. A typical regimen would include a tablespoon of flaxseed oil with 500 mg of blackcurrant oil (or three capsules of evening primrose oil) twice each day. If it is helpful, it should be reduced to the lowest effective dose. Some people also benefit from an herb called feverfew, taken two to three times per day. (Caution: Do not take feverfew if you are pregnant.)

These supplements are available in health food stores.

References 1. Panush RS, Carter RL, Katz P, Kowsari B, Longley S, Finnie S. Diet therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1983;26:462-471. 2. Lithell H, Bruce A, Gustafsson IB, et al. A fasting and vegetarian diet treatment trial on chronic inflammatory disorders. Acta Derm Venereol. 1983;63:397-403. 3. Sobel D. Arthritis: What Works. New York, St. Martin's Press, 1989. 4. Skoldstam L, Larsson L, Lindstrom FD. Effects of fasting and lactovegetarian diet on rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1979;8:249-255. 5. Skoldstam L. Fasting and vegan diet in rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1986;15:219-223. 6. McDougall J, Bruce B, Spiller G, Westerdahl J, McDougall M. Effects of a very low-fat, vegan diet in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis. J Altern Complement Med. 2002;8(1):71-75. 7. Hafstrom I, Ringertz B, Spangberg A, von Zweigbergk L, Brannemark S, Nylander I, Ronnelid J, Laasonen L, Klareskog L. A vegan diet free of gluten improves the signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: the effects on arthritis correlate with a reduction in antibodies to food antigens. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2001;40(10):1175-1179. 8. Hanninen, Kaartinen K, Rauma AL, Nenonen M, Torronen R, Hakkinen AS, Adlercreutz H, Laakso J. Antioxidants in vegan diet and rheumatic disorders. Toxicology. 2000;155(1-3):45-53. 9. Muller H, de Toledo FW, Resch KL. Fasting followed by vegetarian diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Scand J Rheumatol. 2001;30(1):1-10. 10. Merry P, Grootveld M, Lunec J, Blake DR. Oxidative damage to lipids within the inflamed human joint provides evidence of radical-mediated hypoxic-reperfusion injury. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;53:362S-369S.

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Foods and Arthritis | The Physicians Committee

Gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein. If a mutated gene causes a necessary protein to be faulty or missing, gene therapy may be able to introduce a normal copy of the gene to restore the function of the protein.

A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function. Instead, a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene. Certain viruses are often used as vectors because they can deliver the new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so they cant cause disease when used in people. Some types of virus, such as retroviruses, integrate their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome in the human cell. Other viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA is not integrated into a chromosome.

The vector can be injected or given intravenously (by IV) directly into a specific tissue in the body, where it is taken up by individual cells. Alternately, a sample of the patients cells can be removed and exposed to the vector in a laboratory setting. The cells containing the vector are then returned to the patient. If the treatment is successful, the new gene delivered by the vector will make a functioning protein.

Researchers must overcome many technical challenges before gene therapy will be a practical approach to treating disease. For example, scientists must find better ways to deliver genes and target them to particular cells. They must also ensure that new genes are precisely controlled by the body.

A new gene is injected into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

The Genetic Science Learning Center at the University of Utah provides information about various technical aspects of gene therapy in Gene Delivery: Tools of the Trade. They also discuss other approaches to gene therapy and offer a related learning activity called Space Doctor.

The Better Health Channel from the State Government of Victoria (Australia) provides a brief introduction to gene therapy, including the gene therapy process and delivery techniques.

Penn Medicines Oncolink describes how gene therapy works and how it is administered to patients.

Next: Is gene therapy safe?

Original post:
How does gene therapy work? - Genetics Home Reference

About 1 out of every 5 US adults has doctor-diagnosed arthritis. The term arthritis includes more than 100 different rheumatic diseases and conditions, the most common of which is osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis that occur often are rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, fibromyalgia, and gout.

Symptoms include pain, aching, stiffness, and swelling in or around the joints. Some forms of arthritis, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, can affect multiple organs and cause widespread symptoms.

Many people think of arthritis as a disease that only affects the elderly, but it affects people of all ages, including children. Although the risk of developing arthritis increases with age, nearly two-thirds of people with arthritis are younger than 65. Arthritis is more common among women (26%) than men (19%), and it affects members of all racial and ethnic groups.

As the US population ages, the number of adults with arthritis is expected to increase to 67 million by 2030. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is leading the nations efforts to help the millions of adults with arthritis to live well and manage their condition.

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Arthritis | At A Glance Reports | Publications | Chronic ...

You've probably heard the word "arthritis" before. And now, you may be wondering if it could be affecting you. By definition, arthritis means "joint inflammation," and it's used to describe more than 100 different diseases and conditions that affect joints, the tissues that surround joints, and other connective tissue.

Arthritis can affect people differently. It's common in adults 65 and older, but it can affect people of all ages, races, and ethnic groups. In fact, about 1 out of every 5 adults in the United States around 50 million people has reported being diagnosed by their doctor with some form of arthritis.

Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis have different causes, risk factors, and effects on the body:

Even though they have these differences, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis often share common symptoms:

Sometimes arthritis symptoms make it harder to do certain activities. By talking to your doctor about your symptoms, he or she may help you find other ways to continue doing some of those activities.

Your doctor can also help evaluate your current treatment and may recommend other, more effective ways to help you manage your arthritis. The sooner you take action and talk to your doctor, the sooner you can start managing your arthritis symptoms more effectively.

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About Arthritis

AyuhKshinam Ayuhvriddhi

When 8th and ninth lord in 12th then one will lose his longevity by the dishonouring the elders. Aspect of benefics on 8th house and its lord increases the longevity.Having good Ayur yogas also increases the strata of longevity .12th sun for libra ascendant also confers longevity.

One loses his longevity by

Once there was a very learned bramhin by name Srinivasachar in 18th century. He was a great scholar in sanskrit and philososphy . He was very proud of his scholarly aptitude . It was also around same time ,when bhakti movement had gained importance in south India and Das culture was on the rise . Das way of life was initiated by Purandardas [incarnation of Narada] in the south when Vijaynagar empire was at its peak under the able guidance of Vyasateertha [Incarnation of Balhik] a pontiff in the line of Madhvacharya. Das culture mainly emphasised the delivery of Vedic Knowledge in local language [Kannada] through poems and melodious songs for the Lord Vittala .Thus common men and women were suddenly bestowed the nectar of geeta and puranas in the common mans language then prevalent. Vijaydas [ incarnation of sage BHrigu] was also one such illustrious personality of those times. VijayDas was also maternal uncle to Srinivasachar.

Srinivasachar owing to the pride ,he had cultivated, did not recognize the fact that philososphy could be delivered to common man in simple mans language. The philosophy which could not be guaged by immense learning in sanskrit ,how could they be delivered in simple dismal languages.

True ! Sanskrit is a complex language ; its grammar is vast ; its difficult to master it ;perhaps takes many years for the same; Then comes the grasp poetry in sanskrit ! still difficult ; upon that philosophy ; its totally incomprehensible ; Almost all the philosophic literature is available in archaic sanskrit in poetry form ; difficult to decode. it takes many years of study and mastery to exhibit command over such philosophic understandings. All such efforts would seem ridiculous , if somebody claims he understands philosophy although he does not understand sanskrit. Amazing still will be the statement if one says he can express all the intricacies of the Vedas in common mans language! even if we were to accept this ; How come the common man is going to understand them; Can such claim be accepted ?

SrinivasAchar felt these Das culture guys were fooling people in the name of God for common man and dancing around with bells in their anklets;He seriously doubted their credentials and claims of sainthood.

One day VijayDas came visiting to his place and even visited his house. Srinivasachar out of ego and pride did not respect the Learned VijayDas and did not even welcome him in his house. VijayDas went away smiling .But soon after this insult , Srinivasachar started losing out on health.Slowly his health deteriorated. He contracted Kushtha [skin disease ] and slowly his moments became restricted.

SrinivasAchar now contemplated he is heading for Apamrutyu [ his longevity has decreased ]. He however could not comprehend the loss of longevity[ Ayuhkshina] . So to gain longevity he prayed Lord Hanuman in the mountains near Panchamukhi on the banks of TungaBhadra river. After 42 days of Vayustuti Purascharan ,he had a dream , where Lord Hanuman directed him to pray Shri Raghavendra swamy in Mantralaya for further directions. [ Shri Raghavendra has been specially sent from heavens by God to grant the wishes of the humans, hence the direction ].

Srinivas achar spent next few days under austere conditions as penace towards Shri Raghavendra Swamy at Mantralayam. The following night Shri Raghavendra swamy appeared and explained to him the reason for his loss of longevity .[ Disrespect towards very learned VijayDas] ,so he asked him to seek his pardon and blessings.

Srinivas Achar went to VijayDas and sought pardon and accepted the supremacy of poetry and dance in gaining lords Grace . VijayDas directed him to go to his disciple Shri GopalDas [incarnation of Ganapathy] to seek blessings and accept him as Guru .GopalDas was a very learned man , he kept the entire place clean of pebbles lest his disciple would be hurt [ Srinivasachar was troubled by lack of moment and kushtha ] .

When SrinivasAchar came and bowed to GopalDas , he transfered his 40 years of longevity [ through yoga] to a Roti of Jowar[Bhakri] and asked him to eat it to gain a 40 years. When one loses longevity owing to disrespect no austerities can actually increase it . someone has to donate his longevity to make a person live more. [SO never ever lose longevity we would not find anyone to donate life] Without life and longevity all the riches and fame are useless.

Despite donating 40 years GopalDas lived for 80 years of age and gave to this world a wonderful science and technique of Vishwopasana . He rechristened Srinivasachar as JagannathDas [ srinivasachar is incarnation of AHLAD brother of Prahlad , and hence had a very special relationship with Shri Raghavendra swamy ,a incarnation of Prahlad]

JagannathDas gave a magnum opus HARIKATHAMRUTASARA a treatise on the qualities of God Narayana in the comman mans language specially to be read by women and others inelligible for Vedas.

krishnarpanamastu

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longevity | Chiraan's Astrology

Human beings have cells with 46 chromosomes -- 2 chromosomes that determine what sex they are (X and Y chromosomes), and 22 pairs of nonsex (autosomal) chromosomes. Males are "46,XY" and females are "46,XX." The chromosomes are made up of strands of genetic information called DNA. Each chromosome contains sections of DNA called genes, which carry the information needed by your body to make certain proteins.

Each pair of autosomal chromosomes contains one chromosome from the mother and one from the father. Each chromosome in a pair carries basically the same information; that is, each chromosome pair has the same genes. Sometimes there are slight variations of these genes. These variations occur in less than 1% of the DNA sequence. The genes that have these variations are called alleles.

Some of these variations can result in a gene that is abnormal. An abnormal gene may lead to an abnormal protein or an abnormal amount of a normal protein. In a pair of autosomal chromosomes, there are two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If one of these genes is abnormal, the other one may make enough protein so that no disease develops. When this happens, the abnormal gene is called recessive, and the other gene in the pair is called dominant. Recessive genes are said to be inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

However, if only one abnormal gene is needed to produce a disease, it leads to a dominant hereditary disorder. In the case of a dominant disorder, if one abnormal gene is inherited from mom or dad, the child will likely show the disease.

A person with one abnormal gene is called heterozygous for that gene. If a child receives an abnormal recessive disease gene from both parents, the child will show the disease and will be homozygous (or compound heterozygous) for that gene.

GENETIC DISORDERS

Almost all diseases have a genetic component. However, the importance of that component varies. Disorders in which genes play an important role (genetic diseases) can be classified as:

A single-gene disorder (also called Mendelian disorder) is caused by a defect in one particular gene. Single gene defects are rare. But since there are about 4,000 known single gene disorders, their combined impact is significant.

Single-gene disorders are characterized by how they are passed down in families. There are six basic patterns of single gene inheritance:

The observed effect of a gene (the appearance of a disorder) is called the phenotype.

In autosomal dominant inheritance, the abnormality or abnormalities usually appear in every generation. Each time an affected woman has a child, that child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease.

People with one copy of a recessive disease gene are called carriers. Carriers usually don't have symptoms of the disease. But, the gene can often be found by sensitive laboratory tests.

In autosomal recessive inheritance, the parents of an affected individual may not show the disease (they are carriers). On average, the chance that carrier parents could have children who develop the disease is 25% with each pregnancy. Male and female children are equally likely to be affected. For a child to have symptoms of an autosomal recessive disorder, the child must receive the abnormal gene from both parents. Because most recessive disorders are rare, a child is at increased risk of a recessive disease if the parents are related. Related individuals are more likely to have inherited the same rare gene from a common ancestor.

In X-linked recessive inheritance, the chance of getting the disease is much higher in males than females. Since the abnormal gene is carried on the X (female) chromosome, males do not transmit it to their sons (who will receive the Y chromosome from their fathers). However, they do transmit it to their daughters. In females, the presence of one normal X chromosome masks the effects of the X chromosome with the abnormal gene. So, almost all of the daughters of an affected man appear normal, but they are all carriers of the abnormal gene. Each time these daughters bear a son, there is a 50% chance the son will receive the abnormal gene.

In X-linked dominant inheritance, the abnormal gene appears in females even if there is also a normal X chromosome present. Since males pass the Y chromosome to their sons, affected males will not have affected sons. All of their daughters will be affected, however. Sons or daughters of affected females will have a 50% chance of getting the disease.

EXAMPLES OF SINGLE GENE DISORDERS

Autosomal recessive:

X-linked recessive:

Autosomal dominant:

X-linked dominant:

Only a few, rare, disorders are X-linked dominant. One of these is hypophosphatemic rickets, also called vitamin D -resistant rickets.

CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS

In chromosomal disorders, the defect is due to either an excess or lack of the genes contained in a whole chromosome or chromosome segment.

Chromosomal disorders include:

MULTIFACTORIAL DISORDERS

Many of the most common diseasesare caused byinteractions of several genes and factors in the the environment (for example, illnesses in the mother and medications). These include:

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA-LINKED DISORDERS

Mitochondria are small organisms found in most of the body's cells. They are responsible for energy production inside cells. Mitochondria contain their own private DNA.

In recent years, many disorders have been shown to result from changes (mutations) in mitochondrial DNA. Because mitochondria come only from the female egg, most mitochondrial DNA-related disorders are passed down from the mother.

Mitochondrial DNA-related disorders can appear at any age. They have a wide variety of symptoms and signs. These disorders may cause:

Some other disorders are also known as mitochondrial disorders, but they do not involve mutations in the mitochondrial DNA. These disorders are usually single gene defects and they follow the same pattern of inheritance as other single gene disorders.

See more here:
Genetics: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia

Photos: DNA, ladybug, brown eye, blue eye, PCR, Gregor Mendel, peas: AMNH; Starfish: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K4508; Perch fish: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services PK241; Illustrations: Louis Pappas, Steve Thurston, Eric Hamilton; DNA, nature/nurture: Kelvin Chan Boy at computer: Jim Steck; Fruit fly: courtesy of Flybase

Did you know that DNA carries all the information a cell needs to make you uniquely you? Take a look at the science of where it ALL begins.

Illustrations Steve Gray

Solve genetic riddles as you wind your way through the star-studded park.

Photos: Dr. Ian Wilmut and Dolly; Dolly and her birth mother, courtesy of the Roslin Institute; Illustrations: Clay Meyer

Investigate the how and why of cloning. This Web page helps kids understand cloning and explains some of the ethical issues involved.

Photos: George Barrowclough: courtesy of R.J. Gutierrez; Humpback whales, Howard Rosenbaum: courtesy of Peter J. Ersts, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation, AMNH; Owl: John and Karen Hollingsworth, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Yael Wyner: courtesy of Yael Wyner; Joel Cracraft: courtesy of Joel Cracraft; Sumatran Tiger: courtesy of Jessie Cohen, Smithsonian's National Zoo; Lemur: courtesy of Duke University Primate Center; Daniela Calcagnotto: Courtesy of Daniela Calcagnotto; Pacu: courtesy of Leonard Lovshin, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn University; St. Vincent parrots, Mike Russello: courtesy of Mike Russello; Illustrations: Louis Pappas, Steve Thurston, Eric Hamilton

Travel around the world with museum scientists: from Madagascar to the Western U.S. to the island of Sumatra in Indonesia.

Photos: George Amato, Lab machines: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Caimans: courtesy of Santos Breyer, Crocodilian Photo Gallery; Elephant: courtesy of Jason Lelchuk, AMNH; American Crocodile: courtesy of Julio Caballeros Sigme, Florida Museum of Natural History; Tibetan Antelope: courtesy of George B. Schaller; Products: courtesy of Meg Carlough

Join scientist George Amato on his quest to stop criminals smuggling illegal goods.

All photos: AMNH

Here's a very cool experiment that just might bring a tear to your eye. Use a blender to separate the DNA from an onion.

Illustrations: Daryl Collins

Find out what makes you different from a snail, a tree, or even your best friend!

Photos: Salmon, Florida Panther: courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Ruffed lemur: courtesy of Duke University Primate Center; Congo Gorilla: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 1636; Spotted owl: courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service / photo by J&K Hollingsworth; Sumatran tiger: courtesy of Jessie Cohen, Smithsonian's National Zoo; Grevy's zebra: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K10684; Asian Elephant: courtesy of Jason Lelchuk, AMNH; DNA, tongue curling, earlobe, thumb: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Dolly: courtesy of the Roslin Institute; Corn, bananas, dog, bird, eye, flowers, buildings, glacier, human, tomato, cupcake, none: AMNH; Guinea pig: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services PK326; Mars: courtesy of David Crisp and the WFPC2 Science Team (Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology)/NSSDC and NASA; Dusky Seaside Sparrow: courtesy of P.W. Sykes, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Antelope: courtesy of George B. Schaller; Crocodile: courtesy of Santos Breyer, the Crocodilian Photo Gallery; Sea turtle: courtesy of David Vogel, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Illustrations: Cell, Chromosome, DNA: Stephen Blue; Gene: Kelvin Chan; Mononykus dinosaur: Mick Ellison, AMNH; Woolly Mammoth: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 2431, painting by Charles. R. Knight; Dodo Bird: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 6261, Jean Pretre, from Henri-Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, Nouvelles annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris; Sabre tooth tiger: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 1017; painting by Charles R. Knight

Make your opinion count!

Explore the gene scene with these seven books.

Photos: Rob De Salle: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Illustrations: Daniel Guidera

Step into the future for a look at what cloning might do for you.

Illustrations: Animals: Steve Thurston; Journal Page: Carl Mehling

Want to figure out the wildlife in your area and the impact of genetics? Start a field journal, and track how your favorite critter looks and behaves.

Illustrations: Eric Hamilton

Send a note to a friend with these colorful letterheads.

Photos: Physics Notebook, Questions, Molecular Lab, Dog: AMNH; Narwhal: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services, 26177, Photo by A.S. Rudland and Sons, copied by Thos. Lunt, Feb. 19, 1910 from "The Living Animals of the World," Hutchinson and Co., London; Fruit fly: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 101321; The Genomic Revolution AMNH exhibit pictures: Preparation, DNA Learning Lab, Nature/Nurture wall, Yeast: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Chimpanzee: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K12658 Salmon: courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Find out where Rob has followed his born curiosity.

Photos: Rob DeSalle: Physics Notebook, Questions, Molecular Lab, Dog: AMNH; Narwhal: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services, 26177, Photo by A.S. Rudland and Sons, copied by Thos. Lunt, Feb. 19, 1910 from "The Living Animals of the World," Hutchinson and Co., London; Fruit fly: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 101321; The Genomic Revolution AMNH exhibit pictures: Preparation, DNA Learning Lab, Nature/Nurture wall, Yeast: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Chimpanzee: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K12658 Salmon: courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Kids: All people pictures and drawings: courtesy of subjects; Woolly Mammoth: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services 2431, painting by Charles. R. Knight Cat: courtesy of subject Farm: AMNH

Find out where Rob, Emily, Logan, and Seth have followed their born curiosity.

Illustrations: Wayne Vincent

What's the human genome project and what does it mean to you? Toby, Annie, and Claudia uncovered the answers.

Illustrations: Daryl Collins

The next time you eat a tomato, ask yourself: What would it taste like if there were a bit of flounder in it? Learn how scientists are using genetics to change the food you eat.

Photos: Monarch Butterfly, courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K14898; Grizzly Bear: courtesy of NPS; Sunflower: courtesy of Bruce Fritz, ARS; Chimpanzee: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K12658; African Elephant: courtesy of Miriam Westervelt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Apple tree: courtesy of Doug Wilson, USDA; Red flour beetle: courtesy of Cereal Research Centre, AAFC; Brown trout: courtesy of Duane River, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Supplies: AMNH; What to Do: (All photos): AMNH; DNA Model, Lady beetle: courtesy of Scott Bauer, ARS Fish, Daisy: AMNH; What You Need illustrations: Stephen Blue

How can you wear a chimp on your wristwithout getting primate elbow? The answer to this riddle is not as tough as it may seem.

Photos: DNA, AMNH; The Genomic Revolution Exhibit: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Gene: AMNH; Dolly: courtesy of the Roslin Institute; Chimpanzee: courtesy of AMNH Department of Library Services K12658

How much do you know about what makes you you? Test your genetics knowledge with this interactive quiz.

Photos: People: courtesy of Denis Finnin, AMNH; Illustrations: Louis Pappas, Steve Thurston, Eric Hamilton; People: Jim Steck Genetics illustrations: Stephen Blue

Zoom inside your cells for a fascinating look at chromosomes, DNA, genes, and more!

Photos: Frozen Tissue Collection: All specimens from the Frozen Tissue Collection, frilled leaf-tailed gecko: AMNH / Denis Finnin cryovat, test tubes: AMNH / Craig Chesek humpback whale: John J. Mosesso / NBII coyote: AMNH; Gold: gold sheet mouflon, miniature sacrificial figurine, Spanish coins: AMNH / Craig Chesek Inca necklace: AMNH / Denis Finnin Eureka Bar: AMNH / Roderick Mickens astronaut in space: NASA computer chip: stock.xchng; Leeches: jaw: Eye of Science / Photo Researchers, Inc. bite mark: Geoff Tompkinson / Photo Researchers, Inc. leech feeding on snail: Edward Hendrycks, reproduce courtesy of the Canadian Museum of Nature leeches before and after blood meal, leeches on foot, American Medicinal Leech, Malagobdella vagans, Mark Siddall in swamp: courtesy of Mark Siddall; Dioramas: AMNH / Roderick Mickens; Mythic Creatures: All photos courtesy of American Museum of Natural History; Vietnam: pygmi loris, Tonkin snub-nosed monkey: Tilo Nadler / Frankfurt Zoological Society Oriental pit viper: Robert W. Murphy / Royal Ontario Museum scientists with camera trap: Kevin Frey / AMNH Center for Biodiversity and Conservation saola: European Commission, Social Forestry and Nature Conservation

Put your viewing skills to the test with this mystery photo challenge.

Tracking a gorilla can get hairy. Literally. Just ask George Amato.

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Ology Genetics - AMNH

The information in genomes provides the instruction set for producing each living organism on the planet. While we have a growing understanding of the basic biochemical functions of many of the individual genes in genomes, understanding the complex processes by which this encoded information is read out to orchestrate production of incredibly diverse cell types and organ functions, and how different species use strikingly similar gene sets to nonetheless produce fantastically diverse organismal morphologies with distinct survival and reproductive strategies, comprise many of the deepest questions in all of science. Moreover, we recognize that inherited or acquired variation in DNA sequence and changes in epigenetic states contribute to the causation of virtually every disease that afflicts our species. Spectacular advances in genetic and genomic analysis now provide the tools to answer these fundamental questions.

Members of the Department of Genetics conduct basic research using genetics and genomics of model organisms (yeast, fruit fly, worm, zebrafish, mouse) and humans to understand fundamental mechanisms of biology and disease. Areas of active investigation include genetic and epigenetic regulation of development, molecular genetics, genomics and cell biology of stem cells, the biochemistry of micro RNA production and their regulation of gene expression, and genetic and genomic analysis of diseases in model systems and humans including cancer, cardiovascular and kidney disease, neurodegeneration and regeneration, and neuropsychiatric disease. Members of the Department have also been at the forefront of technology development in the use of new methods for genetic analysis, including new methods for engineering mutations as well as new methods for production and analysis of large genomic data sets.

The Department sponsors a graduate program leading to the PhD in the areas of molecular genetics and genomics, development, and stem cell biology. Admission to the Graduate Program is through the Combined Programs in Biological and Biomedical Sciences (BBS).

In addition to these basic science efforts, the Department is also responsible for providing clinical care in Medical Genetics in the Yale New Haven Health System. Clinical genetics services include inpatient consultation and care, general, subspecialty, cancer and prenatal genetics clinics, and clinical laboratories for cytogenetics, DNA diagnostics, and biochemical diagnostics. The Department sponsors a Medical Genetics Residency program leading to certification by the American Board of Medical Genetics. Admission to the Genetics Residency is directly through the Department.

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Genetics

Background:

Homunculus in Sperm One question that has always intrigued us humans is Where did we come from? Long ago, Hippocrates and Aristotle proposed the idea of what they called pangenes, which they thought were tiny pieces of body parts. They thought that pangenes came together to make up the homunculus, a tiny pre-formed human that people thought grew into a baby. In the 1600s, the development of the microscope brought the discovery of eggs and sperm. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, using a primitive microscope, thought he saw the homunculus curled up in a sperm cell. His followers believed that the homunculus was in the sperm, the father planted his seed, and the mother just incubated and nourished the homunculus so it grew into a baby. On the other hand, Regnier de Graaf and his followers thought that they saw the homunculus in the egg, and the presence of semen just somehow stimulated its growth. In the 1800s, a very novel, radical idea arose: both parents contribute to the new baby, but people (even Darwin, as he proposed his theory) still believed that these contributions were in the form of pangenes.

Modern genetics traces its beginnings to Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, who grew peas in a monastery garden. Mendel was unique among biologists of his time because he sought quantifiable data, and actually counted the results of his crosses. He published his findings in 1865, but at that time, people didnt know about mitosis and meiosis, so his conclusions seemed unbelievable, and his work was ignored until it was rediscovered in 1900 by a couple of botanists who were doing research on something else. Peas are an ideal organism for this type of research because they are easy to grow and it is easy to control mating.

We will be looking at the sorts of genetic crosses Mendel did, but first, it is necessary to introduce some terminology:

Monohybrid Cross and Probabilities:

A monohybrid cross is a genetic cross where only one gene/trait is being studied. P stands for the parental generation, while F1 and F2 stand for the first filial generation (the children) and second filial generation (the grandchildren). Each parent can give one chromosome of each pair, therefore one allele for each trait, to the offspring. Thus, when figuring out what kind(s) of gametes an individual can produce, it is necessary to choose one of the two alleles for each gene (which presents no problem if they are the same).

Purple Pea Flower White Pea Flower For example, a true-breeding purple-flowered plant (the dominant allele for this gene) would have the genotype PP, and be able to make gametes with either P or P alleles. A true-breeding white-flowered plant (the recessive allele for this gene) would have the genotype pp, and be able to make gametes with either p or p alleles. Note that both of these parent plants would be homozygous. If one gamete from each of these parents got together to form a new plant, that plant would receive a P allele from one parent and a p allele from the other parent, thus all of the F1 generation will be genotype Pp, they will be heterozygous, and since purple is dominant, they will look purple. What if two individuals from the F1 generation are crossed with each other (PpPp)? Since gametes contain one allele for each gene under consideration, each of these individuals could contribute either a P or a p in his/her gametes. Each of these gametes from each parent could pair with each from the other, thus yielding a number of possible combinations for the offspring. We need a way, then, to predict what the possible offspring might be. Actually, there are two ways of doing this. The first is to do a Punnett square (named after Reginald Crandall Punnett). The possible eggs from the female are listed down the left side, and there is one row for each possible egg. The possible sperm from the male are listed across the top, and there is one column for each possible sperm. The boxes at the intersections of these rows and columns show the possible offspring resulting from that sperm fertilizing that egg. The Punnett square from this cross would look like this:

Note that the chance of having a gamete with a P allele is and the chance of a gamete with a p allele is , so the chance of an egg with P and a sperm with P getting together to form an offspring that is PP is =, just like the probabilities involved tossing coins. Thus, the possible offspring include: PP, ( Pp + pP, which are the same (Pp), since P is dominant over p), so = Pp, and pp.

Another way to calculate this is to use a branching, tree diagram:

Note, again, that the chance of Pp is +=. A shorter way of telling how many PP, Pp, and pp could be expected, would be to say that there is a 1:2:1 genotype ratio (that comes from the , , and , above, and by the way, notice that they add up to , so we know we have accounted for everything). The chance of getting at least one dominant allele (either PP or Pp) necessary for purple color (this can be written as P) is +=, so we could say that theres a 3:1 phenotype ratio. These two ratios are classic genotype and phenotype ratios for a monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes.

Mendels Four-Part Theory:

Based on his data, Mendel came up with a four-part theory of how genetics works:

Some special cases:

(Rh factor, by the way, is a totally separate gene with Rh+ [R] and Rh [r] alleles [actually, that gene also has multiple alleles, but the vast majority of people are positive or negative for one particular allele called D]. In the U. S., about 85% of the population is Rh+ [RR and Rr] and 15% Rh [rr], thus the chances of someone being O [having both ii and rr] would be 45% 15% = 6.75%. The rarest blood type in the U. S. would be AB, about 0.45% of the population.]

This is a cross where two traits/genes are under consideration. For example, in peas if R = round, so r = wrinkled, and Y = yellow, so y = green, in a cross between RRYY rryy, the gametes must have ONE ALLELE FOR EACH GENE, so in this case, RRYY could produce gametes with one R AND one Y, or RY, and rryy could produce gametes with one r AND one y, or ry. The F1 would get RY from one parent and ry from the other, thus would all be RrYy. Note that it is necessary to keep the alleles for the same gene together and put the dominant allele (capital letter) first for EACH GENE. In calculating what the F2 generation would be, you must first figure out what gametes (eggs or sperm) each parent can make. It is very important to remember that gametes must have ONE ALLELE FOR EACH GENE, so figure out the possibilities this way:

Thus, each parent could make four kinds of gametes, so the Punnett square would be 44 cells.

This would give the following possible offspring:

Thus the genotype ratio is 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1 and the phenotype ratio is 9:3:3:1. Notice the shorthand used to represent the phenotypes. Since both RR and Rr will look round, rather than writing round pea seeds, we can use R to say its got at least one R, so itll be round.

Try This:

On your own, try IAiRr IBiRr, a cross involving both the ABO blood group and Rh factor. Note, a little later, we will discuss what those blood groups actually are/do.

Genotype and Phenotype Are Not the Same:

It is important to understand the difference between genotype and phenotype. For example, for most of the genes we will be discussing, an organism with the genotype of, say, BB and an organism who is Bb both have at least one dominant allele for that gene, and thus, would both express/show/be the dominant phenotype. If, for example, this was a gene for human eye color, then B would represent the dominant allele which codes for make brown eyes, and b would represent the recessive allele which codes for blue eyes (technically, more like, we dont know how to make brown, so blue is the default). Thus, people whose genotypes are either BB or Bb both have instructions for make brown, so the phenotypes of both are brown eye color.

As another example where many people get confused, an individuals sex is a phenotype, not a genotype! We can talk of a person as having either two X chromosomes (XX) or one X and one Y chromosome (XY). Those are, essentially, genotypes, and there are also a few people who have genotypes such as X (also called XO), XXX, or XXY. Those X and Y chromosomes contain/consist of a number of genes, and factors such as what alleles a person has for each of those genes, how those alleles are expressed, and how that gene expression affects/influences various body processes will all come together to produce that phenotype which we call a persons sex. In humans, if all those alleles are expressed in what we like to think of as being normal, then, usually, X, XX, and XXX are expressed as a female phenotype (with X and XXX producing some other physical characteristics considered to be typical for those genotypes), while the result of how the XY combination is expressed usually results in what we refer to as a male phenotype.

However, while uncommon, it is entirely possible that due to a mutation in some gene, somewhere, that codes for some enzyme or hormone, a person with 2 X chromosomes (XX) can have a male phenotype; can, clearly and unambiguously, be male. Similarly, while also not very common, it is also possible, due to a mutation in some gene, somewhere, that codes for some hormone or enzyme, that a person with an X and a Y chromosome (XY) can have a female phenotype; can, clearly and unambiguously, be female. Interestingly, because of differences in how the genes/alleles are expressed, the XXY combination typically results in a male in humans but results in a female in fruit flies.

Our culture, our way of thinking, is so locked into having/needing to choose between male and female as the only two options, that while in the unambiguous cases just mentioned where a persons expressed phenotype obviously fits our preconception of maleness or femaleness even if their genotype/chromosomes are different from what we might think (and of which we would not even be aware unless we were that persons doctor and maybe not even then), on the other hand, people whose bodies dont exactly and neatly fit into one of those two categories are lumped together in a group and labeled as intersex. Typically, at birth, their parents are advised by medical personnel to choose whether they wish to bring this child up as a boy or a girl, and may even be pressured into having cosmetic surgery performed on the child to make the child look more like the chosen sex assignment, yet it frequently happens as the child grows up, due to the influence of internal factors such as hormones, etc., that he or she does not feel like the sex which the doctors assigned/labeled at birth. On the other hand, if parents try to be more neutral and let the child make that choice when and if the child decides to do so, that tends to expose the child to a lot of ridicule from classmates and even other adults.

Pedigrees:

Sample Pedigree In pedigrees, a circle represents a female and a square represents a male. Filled-in vs. open symbols are used to distinguish between two phenotypes for the gene in question, and a half-filled symbol may be used to designate a carrier (a heterozygous individual who has a recessive allele for some gene, but is not showing that phenotype). Here is a sample pedigree for eye color. If the people with filled-in (dark) symbols have brown eyes and those with open (light) symbols have blue eyes, can you figure out the genotypes of the people marked with *?

Genetic Basis of Behavior, Polyploids:

Some further notes on genetics: We tend to think of genes that control what an organism looks like, etc., but genes can also control behavior of animals. For example, bird songs and other courtship rituals are under genetic control. The most successful competitors live and mate and pass on their genes. On a different subject, many of our horticultural plant varieties are polyploid plants. Typically, like us, plants are diploid. Horticulturists have figured out ways to manipulate plants and make triploid or tetraploid plants. Typically these plants are larger and/or have bigger or more ruffled flowers and/or larger seeds. While triploid plants are usually sterile (with three sets of chromosomes they have trouble doing meiosis), tetraploid plants are usually fertile and can reproduce. I believe I read somewhere that the wheat we eat is actually a hexaploid, resulting in seeds that are quite a bit larger than its grass-like ancestor.

References:

Borror, Donald J. 1960. Dictionary of Root Words and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publ. Co.

Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology, 5th Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)

Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology: Concepts and Connections, 3rd Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)

Marchuk, William N. 1992. A Life Science Lexicon. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.

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Genetics - Biology

What are genes?

Genes are the part of a body cell that contain the biological information that parents pass to their children. Genes control the growth and development of cells. Genes are contained in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a substance inside the center (nucleus) of cells that contains instructions for the development of the cell.

You inherit half of your genetic information from your mother and the other half from your father. Genes, alone or in combination, determine what features (genetic traits) a person inherits from his or her parents, such as blood type, hair color, eye color, and other characteristics, including risks of developing certain diseases. Certain changes in genes or chromosomes may cause problems in various body processes or functions.

Many genes together make up larger structures within the cell called chromosomes. Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

A human has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). One chromosome from each pair comes from the mother, and one chromosome from each pair comes from the father. One of the 23 pairs determines your sex. These sex chromosomes are called X and Y.

Some genetic disorders are caused when all or part of a chromosome is missing or when an extra chromosome or chromosome fragment is present.

Genetic testing examines a DNA sample for gene changes, or it may analyze the number, arrangement, and characteristics of the chromosomes. Testing may be performed on samples of blood, semen, urine, saliva, stool, body tissues, bone, or hair.

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Genetics and Genetic Disorders and Diseases - WebMD

Genetics is a discipline of biology.[1] It is the science of heredity. This includes the study of genes, and the inheritance of variation and traits of living organisms.[2][3][4] In the laboratory, genetics proceeds by mating carefully selected organisms, and analysing their offspring. More informally, genetics is the study of how parents pass some of their characteristics to their children. It is an important part of biology, and gives the basic rules on which evolution acts.

The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been known since prehistoric times, and used to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century.[5] Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes.

Living things are made of millions of tiny self-contained components called cells. Inside of each cell are long and complex molecules called DNA.[6]DNA stores information that tells the cells how to create that living thing. Parts of this information that tell how to make one small part or characteristic of the living thing red hair, or blue eyes, or a tendency to be tall are known as genes.

Every cell in the same living thing has the same DNA, but only some of it is used in each cell. For instance, some genes that tell how to make parts of the liver are switched off in the brain. What genes are used can also change over time. For instance, a lot of genes are used by a child early in pregnancy that are not used later.

A living thing has two copies of each gene, one from its mother, and one from its father.[7] There can be multiple types of each gene, which give different instructions: one version might cause a person to have blue eyes, another might cause them to have brown. These different versions are known as alleles of the gene.

Since a living thing has two copies of each gene, it can have two different alleles of it at the same time. Often, one allele will be dominant, meaning that the living thing looks and acts as if it had only that one allele. The unexpressed allele is called recessive. In other cases, you end up with something in between the two possibilities. In that case, the two alleles are called co-dominant.

Most of the characteristics that you can see in a living thing have multiple genes that influence them. And many genes have multiple effects on the body, because their function will not have the same effect in each tissue. The multiple effects of a single gene is called pleiotropism. The whole set of genes is called the genotype, and the total effect of genes on the body is called the phenotype. These are key terms in genetics.

We know that man started breeding domestic animals from early times, probably before the invention of agriculture. We do not know when heredity was first appreciated as a scientific problem. The Greeks, and most obviously Aristotle, studied living things, and proposed ideas about reproduction and heredity.[8]

Probably the most important idea before Mendel was that of Charles Darwin, whose idea of pangenesis had two parts. The first, that persistent hereditary units were passed on from one generation to another, was quite right. The second was his idea that they were replenished by 'gemmules' from the somatic (body) tissues. This was entirely wrong, and plays no part in science today.[9] Darwin was right about one thing: whatever happens in evolution must happen by means of heredity, and so an accurate science of genetics is fundamental to the theory of evolution. This 'mating' between genetics and evolution took many years to organise. It resulted in the Modern evolutionary synthesis.

The basic rules of genetics were first discovered by a monk named Gregor Mendel in around 1865. For thousands of years, people had already studied how traits are inherited from parents to their children. However, Mendel's work was different because he designed his experiments very carefully.

In his experiments, Mendel studied how traits were passed on in pea plants. He started his crosses with plants that bred true, and counted characters that were either/or in nature (either tall or short). He bred large numbers of plants, and expressed his results numerically. He used test crosses to reveal the presence and proportion of recessive characters.

Mendel explained the results of his experiment using two scientific laws:

Mendel's laws helped explain the results he observed in his pea plants. Later, geneticists discovered that his laws were also true for other living things, even humans. Mendel's findings from his work on the garden pea plants helped to establish the field of genetics. His contributions were not limited to the basic rules that he discovered. Mendel's care towards controlling experiment conditions along with his attention to his numerical results set a standard for future experiments. Over the years, scientists have changed and improved Mendel's ideas. However, the science of genetics would not be possible today without the early work of Gregor Mendel.

In the years between Mendel's work and 1900 the foundations of cytology, the study of cells, was developed. The facts discovered about the nucleus and cell division were essential for Mendel's work to be properly understood.[10]

At this point, discoveries in cytology merged with the rediscovered ideas of Mendel to make a fusion called cytogenetics, (cyto = cell; genetics = heredity) which has continued to the present day.

During the 1890s several biologists began doing experiments on breeding. and soon Mendel's results were duplicated, even before his papers were read. Carl Correns and Hugo de Vries were the main rediscovers of Mendel's writings and laws. Both acknowledged Mendel's priority, although it is probable that de Vries did not understand his own results until after reading Mendel.[19] Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel's laws.[20] Though de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other biologists built genetics into a science.[19]

Mendel's results were replicated, and genetic linkage soon worked out. William Bateson perhaps did the most in the early days to publicise Mendel's theory. The word genetics, and other terminology, originated with Bateson.

Mendel's experimental results have later been the object of some debate. Fisher analyzed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1.[21] It is sometimes suggested that Mendel may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random. In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show deviation from independent assortment; this is not a pair that Mendel studied.[22]

During the process of DNA replication, errors sometimes occur. These errors, called mutations, can have an effect on the phenotype of an organism. In turn, that usually has an effect on the organism's fitness, its ability to live and reproduce successfully.

Error rates are usually very low1 error in every 10100million basesdue to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases.[23][24] Error rates are a thousandfold higher in many viruses. Because they rely on DNA and RNA polymerases which lack proofreading ability, they get higher mutation rates.

Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic. Mutagenic chemicals increase errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.[23] Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNAnevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.

In organisms which use chromosomal crossovers to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations.[23] Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequenceduplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).

Developed by Reginald Punnett, Punnett squares are used by biologists to determine the probability of offspring to having a particular genotype.

If B represents the allele for having black hair and b represents the allele for having white hair, the offspring of two Bb parents would have a 25% probability of having two white hair alleles (bb), 50% of having one of each (Bb), and 25% of having only black hair alleles (BB).

Geneticists (biologists who study genetics) use pedigree charts to record traits of people in a family. Using these charts, geneticists can study how a trait is inherited from person to person.

Geneticists can also use pedigree charts to predict how traits will be passed to future children in a family. For instance, genetic counselors are professionals who work with families who might be affected by genetic diseases. As part of their job, they create pedigree charts for the family, which can be used to study how the disease might be inherited.

Since human beings are not bred experimentally, human genetics must be studied by other means. One recent way is by studying the human genome. Another way, older by many years, is to study twins. Identical twins are natural clones. They carry the same genes, they may be used to investigate how much heredity contributes to individual people. Studies with twins have been quite interesting. If we make a list of characteristic traits, we find that they vary in how much they owe to heredity. For example:

The way the studies are done is like this. Take a group of identical twins and a group of fraternal twins. Measure them for various traits. Do a statistical analysis (such as analysis of variance). This tells you to what extent the trait is inherited. Those traits which are partly inherited will be significantly more similar in identical twins. Studies like this may be carried further, by comparing identical twins brought up together with identical twins brought up in different circumstances. That gives a handle on how much circumstances can alter the outcomes of genetically identical people.

The person who first did twin studies was Francis Galton, Darwin's half-cousin, who was a founder of statistics. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about mono and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference.[25][26] Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.

The genetics of bacteria, archaea and viruses is a major field or research. Bacterial mostly divide by asexual cell division, but do have a kind of sex by horizontal gene transfer. Bacterial conjugation, transduction and transformation are their methods. In addition, the complete DNA sequence of many bacteria, archaea and viruses is now known.

Although many bacteria were given generic and specific names, like Staphylococcus aureus, the whole idea of a species is rather meaningless for an organism which does not have sexes and crossing-over of chromosomes.[27] Instead, these organisms have strains, and that is how they are identified in the laboratory.

Gene expression is the process by which the heritable information in a gene, the sequence of DNA base pairs, is made into a functional gene product, such as protein or RNA. The basic idea is that DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins. Proteins make many of the structures and all the enzymes in a cell or organism.

Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated (tuned). This includes both the transcription and translation stages, and the final folded state of a protein. Gene regulation switches genes on and off, and so controls cell differentiation, and morphogenesis. Gene regulation may also serve as a basis for evolutionary change: control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the development of the organism. The expression of a gene may vary a lot in different tissues. This is called pleiotropism, a widespread phenomenon in genetics.

Alternative splicing is a modern discovery of great importance. It is a process where from a single gene a large number of variant proteins can be assembled. One particular Drosophila gene (DSCAM) can be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNA.[28]

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence.[29] It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects.[30]

These changes in gene activity may stay for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism.[31] Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently.[32]

Hox genes are a complex of genes whose proteins bind to the regulatory regions of target genes. The target genes then activate or repress cell processes to direct the final development of the organism.[33][34]

There are some kinds of heredity which happen outside the cell nucleus. Normal inheritance is from both parents via the chromosomes in the nucleus of a fertilised egg cell. There are some kinds of inheritance other than this.[35]

Mitochondria and chloroplasts carry some DNA of their own. Their make-up is decided by genes in the chromosomes and genes in the organelle. Carl Correns discovered an example in 1908. The four o'clock plant, Mirabilis jalapa, has leaves which may be white, green or variegated. Correns discovered the pollen had no influence on this inheritance. The colour is decided by genes in the chloroplasts.

This is caused by a symbiotic or parasitic relationship with a microorganism.

In this case nuclear genes in the female gamete are transcribed. The products accumulate in the egg cytoplasm, and have an effect on the early development of the fertilised egg. The coiling of a snail, Limnaea peregra, is determined like this. Right-handed shells are genotypes Dd or dd, while left-handed shells are dd.

The most important example of maternal effect is in Drosophila melanogaster. The protein product maternal-effect genes activate other genes, which in turn activate still more genes. This work won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1995.[36]

Much modern research uses a mixture of genetics, cell biology and molecular biology. Topics which have been the subject of Nobel Prizes in either chemistry or physiology include:

Many well-known disorders of human behaviour have a genetic component. This means that their inheritance partly causes the behavour, or makes it more likely the problem would occur. Examples include: [37]

Also, normal behaviour is also heavily influenced by heredity:

Originally posted here:
Genetics - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

anon113973 Post 5

this is good and all, but you will never be able to figure everything out. We are just not God, my thoughts on trying to perfect every little thing the human mind tries to figure out? Just leave that 1 percent alone.

@ Georgesplane- A few years past the turn of the millennium, scientists from the U.S Department of Energy, the National Human Genome Research Institute, and the International Human genome Sequencing Consortium completed the mapping of the human genome. The Human Genome is the map of human genetics; a complete list of the 3 billion base pairs that make up human DNA.

The mapping and sequencing of the genome is 99% complete, but scientists are still working on determining what every gene does (the other 1% cannot be mapped until new technologies are invented). As scientists learn more about the purpose of the different base pairs and genes, they will be able to develop better drugs, create better diagnostic tools, and

Just like anything else, though, the understanding of genetics can open the window for potential harm. With the advancement of bioengineering, comes the potential for bioengineered threats. This is why the bulletin of Atomic Scientists have added biosecurity to the list of threats monitored in the overview of the doomsday clock.

What is the Human Genome? Is this part of the study of genetics? If so, has the government or researchers finished mapping the Human Genome? Additionally, what is the significance of the Human Genome? Is it going to allow us to change our genetics, orwhat exactly is the genome going to be used for?

The study of human haplogroup population genetics focuses on tracing haplogroups of Y-chromosome (paternal) and mitochondrial (maternal) DNA. This study shows a very high amount of commonalities in haplogroups among people groups of surprising geographic distance. This field, although still advancing from its early stages, indicates a common ancestor for all human beings (Mitochondrial Eve) from whom all mitochondrial DNA is derived.

In the past, geneticists have made the fatal error of assigning value to certain traits over others and assuming an inequity in the quality of life based on which genes a person has inherited. Such misconceptions led to Eugenics and the belief in Racial Superiority. It is helpful to recognize the fact that, although genes differ, they allow us humans to complement each other very well, with a recognition that greater diversity is both effective and beautiful.

More here:
What Is Genetics? (with pictures) - wiseGEEK

The goal of treatment is to reduce pain, improve function, and prevent further joint damage. The underlying cause often cannot be cured.

LIFESTYLE CHANGES

Lifestyle changes are the preferred treatment for osteoarthritis and other types of joint swelling. Exercise can help relieve stiffness, reduce pain and fatigue, and improve muscle and bone strength. Your health care team can help you design an exercise program that is best for you.

Exercise programs may include:

Your health care provider may suggest physical therapy. This might include:

Other things you can do include:

MEDICINES

Medicines may be prescribed along with lifestyle changes. All medicines have some risks. You should be closely followed by a doctor when taking arthritis medicines.

Over-the-counter medicines:

Prescription medicines:

It is very important to take your medicines as directed by your doctor. If you are having problems doing so (for example, because of side effects), you should talk to your doctor. Also make sure your doctor knows about all the medicines you are taking, including vitamins and supplements bought without a prescription.

SURGERY AND OTHER TREATMENTS

In some cases, surgery may be done if other treatments have not worked. This may include:

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Arthritis: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia

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Endocrinologists in Kingsport, TN - Lifescript

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Longevity offers health, beauty and wellness services that are focused on helping you live your best life. Our medical spa is led by Darryl Robinson, M.D. and Kristen Forbes, R.N, who are committed to helping each and every client live a life of health, beauty and wellness. Our goal is to inspire you and help you live life to the fullest while enhancing your body inside and out. Whether your goal is weight loss, stress reduction, a more confident body image, or a healthier lifestyle, we are here to help you attain all of your health and beauty goals.

At Longevity, we provide a full suite of health, beauty and wellness services for our clients in Moore, OK, Norman, OK, South OKC, OK, and the surrounding areas. Our services include skin rejuvenation Ulthera skin tightening & Forever Young BBL PhotoFacials;Skin care acne treatments, microdermabrasion, chemical peels & microneedling; Medically supervised weight loss, detox services & nutrition.

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Longevity - Esthetician, Botox & Juvederm Moore, Norman ...

University of Michigan Integrative Medicine, an interdisciplinary program, is committed to the thoughtful and compassionate integration of complementary therapies and conventional medicine through the activities of research, education, clinical services and community partnerships. As a healing-oriented approach to medical care, integrative medicine takes into account the whole person (body, mind, spirit and emotion), including all aspects of lifestyle.

The vision, mission and values of the University of Michigan Integrative Medicine (UMIM) program reflect our belief that patients and our community are best served when all available therapies are considered in concert with an approach that recognizes the intrinsic wholeness of each individual. It also reflects our belief that the best medicine is practiced in collaboration with a wide variety of healthcare professionals and with our patients.

Our vision: To facilitate healing and wellness of mind, body, heart and spirit through clinical services, research and education.

Our mission: To provide responsible leadership in the integration of complementary, alternative and conventional medicine.

Our values: To live and work in balance with the community, the environment and each other. To touch beyond our reach and see beyond our vision.

Integrative medicine is the practice of medicine that reaffirms the importance of the relationship between practitioner and patient, focuses on the whole person, is informed by evidence and makes use of all appropriate therapeutic approaches, health care professionals and disciplines to achieve optimal health and healing.

Developed and Adopted by The Consortium of Academic Health Centers for Integrative Medicine, May 2004 Edited May 2005.

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University of Michigan Integrative Medicine Program

Overview

Blindness is the inability to see anything, even light. If you are partially blind, you have limited vision. Complete blindness means that you cannot see at all and are in total darkness. Legal blindness refers to vision that is highly compromised: What a person with healthy eyes can see from 200 feet away, a legally blind person can see only from 20 feet away.

If you suddenly lose the ability to see, seek medical attention right away. Go to the emergency room for treatment. Do not simply wait for your vision to return. Immediate treatment increases the chances of restoring your vision, depending on the cause of your blindness. Treatment may involve surgery or medication.

Total blindness means that you cannot see anything. If you have partial blindness, you may suffer from blurry vision or the inability to distinguish the shapes of objects, depending on the cause of your vision impairment.

The following eye diseases and conditions can cause blindness:

If you suffer from diabetes or have a stroke, blindness is a potential complication. Birth defects, eye injuries, and complications from eye surgery are other common causes of blindness.

The following categories of people are at risk for blindness:

If you are completely blind, you can see nothing. If you are partially blind, you might experience the following symptoms:

A childs visual system begins to develop in the womb, but will not be fully formed until about 2 years of age. By 6 to 8 weeks of age, a baby should be able to fix his or her gaze on an object and follow its movement. By 4 months of age, the childs eyes should be properly aligned (not turned inward or outward).

A pediatrician will screen your baby for eye problems shortly after birth. At 6 months of age, you should have an eye doctor or pediatrician check your child again for visual acuity, focus, and eye alignment. The doctor will look at your babys eye structures and see whether the baby can follow a light or colorful object with his or her eyes.

The following conditions can cause vision impairment or blindness in infants:

Your child should be able to pay attention to visual stimuli by 6 to 8 weeks of age. If your child does not react to light shining in his or her eyes or focus on colorful objects by 2 to 3 months of age, or if you notice crossed eyes or any other symptoms of impaired vision, have your childs eyes examined right away.

Symptoms of visual impairment in young children include:

A thorough eye exam by an optometrist will help to determine the cause of your blindness or partial loss of vision. Eye doctors administer a series of tests that measure the clarity of your vision, the function of your eye muscles, and how your pupils react to light. The eye doctor will examine the general health of your eyes using a slit lamp, which is a low-power microscope paired with a high-intensity light.

In some cases of vision impairment, eyeglasses, surgery, or medication may help to restore your vision.

If you experience partial blindness that cannot be corrected, treatment usually involves guidance on how to function with limited vision. For example, you can use a magnifying glass to read, increase the text size on your computer, and use audio clocks and audiobooks.

Complete blindness requires approaching life in a new way and learning new skills, including:

The long-term outlook for restoring vision and slowing vision loss is better when treatment is preventive and is sought immediately. Cataracts can be treated effectively with surgery and do not necessarily result in blindness. Early diagnosis and treatment is also important in cases of glaucoma and macular degeneration to help slow down or stop vision loss.

To help prevent vision loss, get regular eye examinations to detect any eye diseases. If you are diagnosed with certain eye conditions, such as glaucoma, treatment with medication can help to prevent blindness.

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Blindness: Types, Causes & Symptoms - Healthline

Blindness: Introduction

Blindness: Any type of vision loss (e.g. blindness, blurred vision, double vision, etc.) is a symptom of great concern. Many of the causes are very serious ... more about Blindness.

Blindness: The inability to see out of the eyes. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Blindness is available below.

Read more about symptoms of Blindness

Home medical testing related to Blindness:

Read more about Deaths and Blindness.

Read more about Types of Blindness

Read more about complications of Blindness.

See full list of 364 causes of Blindness

More information about causes of Blindness:

Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Blindness:

Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories:

Research related physicians and medical specialists:

Other doctor, physician and specialist research services:

More Blindness animations & videos

Visit our research pages for current research about Blindness treatments.

The US based website ClinicalTrials.gov lists information on both federally and privately supported clinical trials using human volunteers.

Some of the clinical trials listed on ClinicalTrials.gov for Blindness include:

See full list of 23 Clinical Trials for Blindness

Prevention information for Blindness has been compiled from various data sources and may be inaccurate or incomplete. None of these methods guarantee prevention of Blindness.

Read more about prevention of Blindness

Types of Blindness

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Read about other experiences, ask a question about Blindness, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards:

Visual impairments limiting one or more of the basic functions of the eye: visual acuity, dark adaptation, color vision, or peripheral vision. These may result from EYE DISEASES; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; VISUAL PATHWAY diseases; OCCIPITAL LOBE diseases; OCULAR MOTILITY DISORDERS; and other conditions. Visual disability refers to inability of the individual to perform specific visual tasks, such as reading, writing, orientation, or traveling unaided. (From Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p132) - (Source - Diseases Database)

Lack of sight - (Source - WordNet 2.1)

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Blindness Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatments and Causes ...

Blindness: Introduction

Any type of vision loss (e.g. blindness, blurred vision, double vision, etc.) is a symptom of great concern. Many of the causes are very serious medical conditions. Certain types of vision changes can be a medical emergency where delay can lead to loss of sight (e.g. for causes such as glaucoma, eye injury, retinal detachment) or loss of life (e.g. for causes such as stroke, TIA, etc.). Even transient or temporary blindness or loss of vision cannot be ignored because it can result from serious conditions such as stroke, TIA, hypertension, epilepsy, or migraine. Seek immediate professional medical attention for any such symptoms of vision changes....more

Review Causes of Blindness: Causes | Symptom Checker | Assessment Questionnaire

The following medical conditions are some of the possible causes of Blindness. There are likely to be other possible causes, so ask your doctor about your symptoms.

See full list of 496 causes of Blindness

Review Causes of Blindness: Causes | Symptom Checker | Assessment Questionnaire

Home medical tests possibly related to Blindness:

Review the causes of these more specific types of Blindness:

Review causes of types of Blindness in more specific categories:

Review causes of more specific types of Blindness:

See full list of 30 types for Blindness

Listed below are some combinations of symptoms associated with Blindness, as listed in our database. Visit the Symptom Checker, to add and remove symptoms and research your condition.

See full list of 501 Symptom Checkers for Blindness

Review further information on Blindness Treatments.

Real-life user stories relating to Blindness:

Symptom specific forums: The following patient stories in our interactive forums and message boards relate to Blindness or relevant symptoms:

Various tests are used in the diagnosis of Blindness. Some of these are listed below :

See full list of 16 diagnostic tests for Blindness

More Blindness animations & videos

Some of the comorbid or associated medical symptoms for Blindness may include these symptoms:

See all associated comorbid symptoms for Blindness

Research the causes of these more general types of symptom:

Research the causes of these symptoms that are similar to, or related to, the symptom Blindness:

During a consultation, your doctor will use various techniques to assess the symptom: Blindness. These will include a physical examination and possibly diagnostic tests. (Note: A physical exam is always done, diagnostic tests may or may not be performed depending on the suspected condition) Your doctor will ask several questions when assessing your condition. It is important to openly share any pertinent information to help your doctor make an accurate diagnosis.

It is also very important to bring an up-to-date list of all of your all medical conditions, medications including dosages, and names of numbers of any specialist you see.

Create your printable checklist here.

See Blindness Assessment Questionnaire (18 listings)

Read more about causes and Blindness deaths.

Other ways to find a doctor, or use doctor, physician and specialist online research services:

Conditions that are commonly undiagnosed in related areas may include:

Other medical conditions listed in the Disease Database as possible causes of Blindness as a symptom include:

See full list of 496 causes of Blindness - (Source - Diseases Database)

Visual impairments limiting one or more of the basic functions of the eye: visual acuity, dark adaptation, color vision, or peripheral vision. These may result from EYE DISEASES; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; VISUAL PATHWAY diseases; OCCIPITAL LOBE diseases; OCULAR MOTILITY DISORDERS; and other conditions. Visual disability refers to inability of the individual to perform specific visual tasks, such as reading, writing, orientation, or traveling unaided. (From Newell, Ophthalmology: Principles and Concepts, 7th ed, p132) - (Source - Diseases Database)

Lack of sight - (Source - WordNet 2.1)

Inability to see or the loss or absence of perception of visual stimuli; condition may be the result of eye, optic nerve, optic chiasm or brain diseases effecting the visual pathways or occipital lobe. - (Source - CRISP)

The list of organs typically affected by Blindness may include, but is not limited to:

The list below shows some of the causes of Blindness mentioned in various sources:

See full list of 496 causes of Blindness

This information refers to the general prevalence and incidence of these diseases, not to how likely they are to be the actual cause of Blindness. Of the 496 causes of Blindness that we have listed, we have the following prevalence/incidence information:

See the analysis of the prevalence of 496 causes of Blindness

The following list of conditions have 'Blindness' or similar listed as a symptom in our database. This computer-generated list may be inaccurate or incomplete. Always seek prompt professional medical advice about the cause of any symptom.

Select from the following alphabetical view of conditions which include a symptom of Blindness or choose View All.

The following list of medical conditions have Blindness or similar listed as a medical complication in our database. The distinction between a symptom and complication is not always clear, and conditions mentioning this symptom as a complication may also be relevant. This computer-generated list may be inaccurate or incomplete. Always seek prompt professional medical advice about the cause of any symptom.

Ask or answer a question about symptoms or diseases at one of our free interactive user forums.

Medical story forums: If you have a medical story then we want to hear it.

See a list of all the medical forums

This information shows analysis of the list of causes of Blindness based on whether certain risk factors apply to the patient:

Depending on the seriousness of the onset of Blindness, you may want to consult one of the following medical professionals.

Important:In extreme cases, always seek advice from emergency services :

Vision disorders, Visual disturbance, Visual impairment, Blind or partially sighted - (Source - Diseases Database)

Subtypes of Blindness:

Night blindness (134 causes), Blind spot (51 causes), Blindness in one eye (9 causes), Acute blindness (14 causes), Blindness in both eyes (3 causes), Chronic blindness (6 causes), Fleeting blindness (14 causes), Floaters (18 causes), Eye floaters (9 causes), Eyeball spots (7 causes), Cotton wool spots (8 causes)

Medical Conditions associated with Blindness:

Vision changes (2526 causes), Vision loss (688 causes), Impaired vision (1545 causes), Visual problems (2143 causes), Vision symptoms (2526 causes), Eye symptoms (5412 causes), Face symptoms (8109 causes), Head symptoms (10192 causes), Vision distortion (1970 causes)

Symptoms related to Blindness:

Peripheral vision loss (72 causes), Floaters (18 causes), Flashes (29 causes), Blurred vision (982 causes), Double vision (221 causes), Vision changes (2526 causes), Eye symptoms (5412 causes), Eye pain (475 causes), Cataracts (330 causes), Glaucoma (150 causes), Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), Corneal opacity, Diabetic retinopathy (9 causes)

Doctor-patient articles related to symptoms and diagnosis:

These general medical articles may be of interest:

See full list of premium articles on symptoms and diagnosis

Our news pages contain the following medical news summaries about Blindness and many other medical conditions:

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Medical Articles:

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Blindness - RightDiagnosis.com

Students who have no sight cannot access standard printed materials. Students who have been blind since birth may also have difficulty understanding verbal descriptions of visual materials and concepts.

Consider the description "This diagram of ancestral lineage looks like a tree." To someone who has never seen a tree, it may not be readily apparent that the structure discussed has several lines of ancestry that can be traced back to one central family. Students who lost their vision later in life may find it easier to understand such verbal descriptions. Additionally, directions and demonstrations based on color differences may be difficult to follow for students with blindness. During demonstrations, clear, concise narration of the basic points being represented in visual aids is important. This technique benefits other students as well. The assistance of a sighted person may be required in order for the student who is blind to gain access to visual content.

Ready access to the content of printed materials on computer or website can allow a blind student, who has access to technology to read text aloud and/or produce it in Braille. Some materials may need to be transferred to audiotape or embossed in Braille. Since it may take weeks or even months to create or procure these materials, it is essential that campus service staff select and prepare these materials well before they are needed. School services for students with disabilities typically coordinates Braille, electronic, and audiotape production in collaboration with staff, instructors and the student. They may also be able to locate or create tactile models and raised-line drawings of graphic images.

Computers with optical character readers, speech output, Braille screen displays, and Braille printers allow students who are blind to access electronic resources. The disabled student services office and/or computing services staff on your campus can be consulted when addressing computer access issues.

Web pages should be designed so that they are accessible to those using Braille and speech output systems. Your webmaster should be knowledgeable about accessible design of web pages.

Typical accommodations for students who are blind are:

Let's consider an example. How could a student who is blind access a campus map to understand the campus layout? Choose a response.

Responses:

For frequently asked questions, case studies, and promising practices, consult the searchable Knowledge Base.

Explore DO-IT Publications, Knowledge Base articles, and websites on this topic atAccommodation Resources: Blindness. To learn about specific accommodations for an academic activity, select from the list below.

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Blindness | DO-IT - University of Washington