StemCell Therapy

This page is about the immune system. It also tells you about the effects that cancer or treatments may have on the immune system. Some treatments can boost theimmune system tohelp fight cancer.There is information about

The immune system protects the body against illness and infection caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It is really a collection of reactions and responses that the body makes to damaged cells orinfection. So it is sometimes called the immune response.

The immune system is important to cancer patients in many ways because

Cancer can weaken the immune system by spreading into the bone marrow. The bone marrowmakesblood cells that help to fight infection. Weakening of the immune system happens most often in leukaemia or lymphoma. But it can happen with other cancers too. The cancer in the bone marrow stops the bone marrow making so many blood cells.

Chemotherapy, biological therapies andradiotherapy can temporarilyweaken immunity by causing a drop in the number of white blood cells made in the bone marrow. High doses of steroids can also weaken your immune system while you are taking them.

You can find information about the different types of cancer treatments.

Some cells of the immune system can recognise cancer cells as abnormal and kill them. Unfortunately, this may not beenough to get rid of a cancer altogether. But some new treatments aim to use the immune system to fight cancer.

There are two main parts of the immune system

This is also called innate immunity. These immune mechanisms are always ready and prepared to defend the body from infection. They can act immediately (or very quickly). This inbuilt protection comes from

There are several ways that these natural protection mechanisms can be damaged or overcome if you have cancer. For example

These white blood cells are very important for fighting infection.They can

Your normal neutrophil count is between 2,000 and 7,500 per cubic millimetre of blood. When you don't have enough neutrophils you are said to be neutropaenic.

Chemotherapy and some radiotherapy treatments can lower theneutrophil count. So, after chemotherapy, biological therapy and some types ofradiotherapy you may be more likely to get bacterial or fungal infections.

If you are having cancer treatment, it is important for you to know that

You are morelikely to become ill from bugs you carry around with you normally, not from catching someone else's. This means that you usually don't have to avoid your family, friends or children when you gohome after chemotherapy.

You can ask your cancer doctor or nurse what precautions you should take against infection.

When your blood counts are low, you may needto take antibiotics to help prevent severe infection.

This is immune protection thatthe body learns from being exposed to diseases. The body learns to recognise each different kind of bacteria, fungus orvirus it meets for the first time. The next time that particular bug tries to invade the body, the immune system is ready for it and able to fight it off more easily. This is why you usually only get some infectious diseases oncefor example, measles or chicken pox.

Vaccination works by using this type of immunity. A vaccine contains a small amount of protein from a disease. This is not harmful, but it allows the immune system to recognise the disease if it meets it again. The immune response can then stop you getting the disease. Some vaccines use tiny amounts of the live bacteria or virus. These are called live attenuated vaccines.

Attenuated means that the virus or bacteria has been changed so that it will stimulate the immune system to make antibodies but won't cause the infection. Other types of vaccine use killed bacteria or viruses, or parts of proteinsproduced by bacteria and viruses.

The white blood cells involved in the acquired immune response are called lymphocytes. There are two main types of lymphocytesB cells and T cells. B and T lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow, like the other blood cells.

Lymphocyteshave to fully mature before they can help in the immune response. B cells mature in the bone marrow. But the immature T cells travel through the bloodstream to the thymus gland where they become fully developed.

Once they are fully mature, the B and T cells travel to the spleen and lymph nodes ready to fight infection.

You can read about the thymus, spleen and lymph nodes on ourpage aboutthe lymphatic system and cancer.

B cells react against invading bacteria or viruses by making proteins called antibodies. The antibody made is different for each different type of germ (bug). The antibody locks onto the surface of the invading bacteria or virus. The invader is then marked with the antibody so that the body knows it is dangerous and it can be killed off. Antibodies can also detect and kill damaged cells.

The B cells are part of the memory of the immune system. The next time the same germtries to invade, the B cells that make the right antibody are ready for it. They are able to make their antibody very quickly.

Antibodies have two ends. One end sticks to proteins on the outside of white blood cells. The other end sticks to the germ or damaged cell and helps to kill it. The end of the antibody that sticks to the white blood cell is always the same. So it is called the constant end.

The end of the antibody that recognises germs and damaged cells varies depending on the cell it is designed to recognise. So it is called the variable end. Each B cell makes antibodies with a different variable end from other B cells.

Cancer cells are not normal cells. So some antibodies with variable ends recognise cancer cells and stick to them.

There are different kinds of T cells called

The helper T cells stimulate the B cells to make antibodies, and help killer cells develop.

Killer T cells kill the body's own cells that have been invaded by the viruses or bacteria. This prevents the germfrom reproducing in the cell and then infecting other cells.

Some cancertreatments use elements of the immune system to help treat cancer.

Immunotherapy is a type of biological therapy. Biological therapies use natural body substances or drugs made from natural body substances to treat cancer. Immunotherapies are treatments that use your immune system. They are helpful in cancer treatment because cancer cells are different from normal cells and so can be picked up by the immune system.

Many different chemicals produced as part of the immune response can now be made in the laboratory. These include interferon, interleukin 2 and monoclonal antibodies.

Interferon alpha and interleukin 2 act by boosting the immune response to help the body kill off cancer cells.

Scientists are also trying to develop vaccinations against cancer cells. It may be possible for the vaccine to train the immune system to see cancer cells as being invaders and kill them.

You can read more aboutbiological therapies.

Monoclonal antibodies are made in the laboratory. The scientists developing them make an antibody with a variable end that recognises cancer cells. Monoclonal means that all the antibodies are exactly the same type, with the same variable end.

The monoclonal antibodies recognise molecules on the outside of cancer cells. Different antibodies have to be made for different types of cancer, for example

The constant end of cancer treating monoclonal antibodies kills the cancer cells by marking them so that other immune system cells pick them out. The job of these other cells is to find antibody labelled cells and kill them.

Scientists can sometimes make the monoclonal antibody even better at killing cancer cells. They may attach a radioactive atom that delivers radiation directly to the cancer cells. Or they can attach a chemotherapy drug that is taken straight to the cancer cells by the monoclonal antibody.

Monoclonal antibodies are used for many types of cancer. You can find out moreabout monoclonal antibodies.

There is a lot of research going on into using immune system therapies to treat cancer. You can find information about monoclonal antibody trials on ourclinical trials database.

Many people with cancer believe that they should strengthen their immune systems to help beat the disease. There is a commonly held belief that reducing stress can help to strengthen our immune systems. This is the thinking behind some complementary therapies, such asusing relaxation techniques.

There is some scientific evidence that stress weakens our immunity. Two studies looking at whether stress affected cancer recurrence had conflicting results. While no one knows whether strengthening immunity can help to cure cancer, most doctors and nurses agree that reducing stress is a good thing to do.

While many life stresses cannot be avoided altogether, there are ways you can try to help yourself. Many complementary therapies such as meditation, massage and reflexology, can be very relaxing.

You can avoid getting run down and look after yourself by

You can find outaboutcomplementary therapies.

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The immune system and cancer | Cancer Research UK

Home Stem Cell Therapy | Cellular Prolotherapy

Ross Hauser, MD

Ross Hauser, MD: the use of Stem Cell Therapy in the treatment of joint and spine degeneration.

Stem cell therapy is exploding in the medical field, and for good reason. Stem cells have the potential to regenerate into any type of body tissue. The amazing thing about stem cells is that when you inject them into the body, they know what kinds of cells your body needs for example, meniscus cells or cartilage cells. It is a very exciting time for medicine, especially in the field of regenerative medicine. In our office we often refer to this as Cellular Prolotherapy.

In Stem Cell Therapy we use a persons own healing cells from bone marrow, fat, and blood (alone or in various combinations) and inject them straight to the area which has a cellular deficiency.

The goal is the same: to stimulate the repair of injured tissues. Stem cells aid in fibroblastic proliferation where cell growth, proteosynthesis, reparation, the remodeling of tissues, and chondrocyte proliferation occurs. Our bone marrow contains stem cells,also termed mesenchymal stem cells and progenitor cells, among other names. These immature cells have the ability to become tissues like cartilage, bone, and ligaments.

Consequently, researchers and clinicians are focusing on alternative methods for cartilage preservation and repair. Recently,cell-basedtherapyhas become a key focus of tissue engineering research to achieve functional replacement of articular cartilage.1

Not all injuries require stem cells to heal. For many patients the success rate with traditionalProlotherapyin this office is in the 90%+ range for all patients. However, for those cases of advanced arthritis, meniscus tears, labral tears, bone-on-bone, or aggressive injuries, our Prolotherapy practitioners may choose to use stem cell injections to enhance the healing, in combination with dextrose Prolotherapy to strengthen and stabilize the surrounding support structures formeniscus repair.

In our research published inThe Open Stem Cell Journal,Rationale for Using Direct Bone Marrow Aspirate as a Proliferant for Regenerative Injection Therapy(Prolotherapy). We not only showed the benefit of bone marrow derived stem cells as a Prolotherapy proliferant solution, but also that this exciting field of medicine needs doctors and scientisists working together to expand research and technique guidelines.

Typically the tissue that we are trying to stimulate to repair with Stem Cell Therapy or Cellular Prolotherapy is articular cartilage, but we can also proliferate soft tissues structures such as ligament and tendons. This is new technology so we are studying it as we use it to treat patients.

We chose to review this study to support our research and to inform people about the human studies usingbone marrow stem cellsfor articular cartilage lesions. Articular cartilage is a type of cartilage that covers joint surfaces and is most susceptible to injury compared to other types of cartilage.

Researchers at Cairo University School of Medicine and the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine reported on the use of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and aplatelet-richfibrin scaffold to heal full-thickness cartilage defects in five patients. The researchers studied the treatment results from the bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells which were used in a platelet rich fibrin glue, placed on the tear and covered with a flap of the patients cartilage.

Platelets were used as a scaffold because platelets contain various growth factors that stimulate cartilage regeneration. The researchers expected that the biological effect of multiplegrowth factorson tissue regeneration is greater that of a single growth factor.

Results

The patients showed significant functional improvement. Two of the patients underwent arthroscopy after the transplantation and showed near normal articular cartilage. Three postoperative MRIs revealed complete healing and congruent cartilage tissue, whereas two patient MRIs showed incomplete congruity in the cartilage tissue.

Conclusion

Osteoarthritis is a cartilage degenerative processNo treatment is still available to improve or reverse the process. Stem cell therapy opened new horizons for treatment of many incurable diseasesIn this research four patients with knee osteoarthritis were selected for the study. They were aged 55, 57, 65 and 54 years, and had moderate to severe knee Osteoarthritis. After their signed written consent, 30 mL of bone marrow were taken and cultured for MSC growth. After having enough MSCs in culture (4-5 weeks) and taking in consideration all safety measures, cells were injected in one knee of each patient.

The walking time for the pain to appear improved for three patients and remained unchanged for one. On physical examination, the improvement was mainly for crepitus. It was minor for the improvement of the range of motion.

Results were encouraging, but not excellent. Improvement of the technique may improve the results.4

Platelet Rich Plasma contains a myriad of substances that stimulate healing:

Numerous studies have shown that PRP enhances the effects of Stem Cell Therapy5,6As the study above notes Results were encouraging, but not excellent. Improvement of the technique may improve the results. Platelet Rich Plasma therapy improves the technique and improves the results.

Our ultimate goal withallforms of Prolotherapy is to get the patients back to doing the things that they want to do without pain. It is our hope that the Stem Cell Therapy (Cellular Prolotherapy) treatments will form functionally, structurally, and mechanically equal to, if not better than, living tissue which has been designed to replace (or work alongside of) damaged tissue. It is hard to prove the above statement because we cannot sacrifice human beingsafterProlotherapy to see if the tissue looks and acts normally. Wecan, however, report that the majority of our patients who receive Stem Cell Therapy along with traditional Hackett-Hemwall Prolotherapy get back to activities and have dramatically decreased pain levels using this comprehensive approach.

Links to our other articles for your specific conditions

A page with more information on stem cell injection treatments combined with Prolotherapy and PRP Treatments for back pain.

In this article wediscusses research that showsthatstem cell injection therapywill aid in the repair ofarticular cartilageandmeniscus tears. The treatment relieves symptoms of stiffness,pain, disability, and inability to walk as commonly reported by our patients diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis.

Many patients have many questions about stem cell tretament for knee osteoarthritis, lets hear yours.

References for this article

1.Mazor M, Lespessailles E, Coursier R, et al.Mesenchymal stem-cell potential in cartilage repair: an update. J Cell Mol Med. 2014 Oct 29. doi: 10.1111/jcmm.12378. 2. Diekman BO, Guilak F.Stem cell-based therapies for osteoarthritis: challenges and opportunities. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2013 Jan;25(1):119-26. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0b013e32835aa28d. 3. Hauser RA, Orlofsky A.Regenerative injection therapy with whole bone marrow aspirate for degenerative joint disease: a case series.Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord. 2013 Sep 4;6:65-72. doi: 10.4137/CMAMD.S10951. eCollection 2013. 4. Davatchi F, Abdollahi BS, Mohyeddin M, Shahram F, Nikbin B. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy for knee osteoarthritis. Preliminary report of four patients. Int J Rheum Dis. 2011 May;14(2):211-5. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-185X.2011.01599.x. Epub 2011 5. Mishra A, Tummala P, King A, Lee B, Kraus M, Tse V, Jacobs CR. Buffered platelet-rich plasma enhances mesenchymal stem cell proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation. 2009 Sep;15(3):431-5. 6. Kasten P, Vogel J, Beyen I, Weiss S, Niemeyer P, Leo A, Lginbuhl R. Effect of platelet-rich plasma on the in vitro proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells on distinct calcium phosphate scaffolds: the specific surface area makes a difference. J Biomater Appl. 2008 Sep;23(2):169-88. Epub 2008 Jul 16.

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Stem Cell Therapy | Cellular Prolotherapy | Caring Medical

Australia - New Zealand - Asia & Pacific Rim - China - Italy

The Foundation is a privately funded philanthropic (non profit) organization advising un-well people about how to gain access to Adult Stem Cell Therapy (ASCT). The Foundation is also promoting a plan to its members on how to prevent or limit the progression of degenerative diseases and other conditions. Degenerative disease is an escalating world problem that, if not controlled, could bankrupt our health systems.

A major objective of the Foundation is to highlight that people suffering from degenerative conditions now have the option of considering Adult Stem Cell Therapy. This therapy may improve quality of life for sufferers of Arthritis, MS, Parkinsons, Diabetes, Stroke, Alzheimers, Spinal Cord injuries, Cancer or Chronic Pain to name a few. A stem cell transplant, instead of a joint replacement, is fast becoming the preferred first option for orthopedic surgeons.

The Foundation intends to educate parents/carers of children suffering from a debilitating or degenerative condition like Cerebral Palsy, Muscular Dystrophy, Autism, Spinal injuries, Cystic fibrosis, ADHD etc. Stem cell treatments have progressed in leaps and bounds for these conditions. There are now state of the art clinics that specialize in treating the afore-mentioned conditions. Children can usually benefit substantially from an early intervention by stem cell therapies and other protocols because they are still growing. As an example: spending time in a mild hyperbaric chamber (HBO) can also be beneficial. Just fill out the Application Form for an experimental transplant and we will be only too happy to advise.

The ASCF has become a global Information Centre for stem cell therapy. The centre will only support clinics that have demonstrated they abide by the highest medical standards and have a proven track record of administering these types of therapies, in Australia and overseas. We can now advise locally which gives peace of mind to our members who are contemplating a procedure of this nature.

Creating awareness of the availability of stem cell therapy and that it has become viable for consideration.

To raise money from benefactors, including private and commercial sponsorships.

To provide medical and research reports on degenerative disease to doctors and health professionals.

To run awareness programs on Lifestyle Medicine promoting healthy foods that may prevent the onset of degenerative diseases. This includes stem cell stimulating natural products that are backed by science.

To provide information to schools on healthy diet and lifestyle plans. To provide scholarships and fellowships for the study of degenerative diseases and their treatment.

To support Adult Stem Cell research by leading Universities and Not For Profit organizations.

To open representative offices in other countries. Such offices are already established in Thailand, NZ, South Africa, India, UK and France

It is a free service giving doctors in full security and full control the ability to record and share patient stem cell data with other doctors. The following is an overview of the Registrys main features:

Australasian Stem Cell Registry Overview - Read more >>>

The ASCF has also introduced a new funding model for stem cell transplants - this new financing model is funded by the patients and their supporters.

The Foundation receives no government funding so we exist on the generosity of our members, the public and corporations. We hope if we can help improve your health outcomes that you may see your way clear at some future time to consider assisting with either your time or money to this worthwhile cause.

We would also like to point out that there are medical conditions today that are still beyond the scope of this new and exciting branch of medical science, which unfortunately means not everybody can be treated with stem cells at this stage. If you are in this category, it is even more important you follow the ASCF Prevention Plan (see below) and keep your health in the best possible state while science catches up. Science is moving very fast in the area of Regenerative Medicine.

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Stem cell - ADULT STEM CELL THERAPY IS AVAILABLE NOW!

Table of Contents Module 1 Conceptually, stem cell research can be viewed as a branch of modern biology that attempts to create stem cells from differentiated cells or to transform embryonic or adult stem cells into specialized, differentiated cells that can be used to replace damaged cells or organs. Research conducted from 1998 to 2015 on human stem cells has demonstrated that the transformation of stem cells into healthy specialized cell types is emerging as a fundamental biological area of study that could lead to revolutionary therapies and clinical applications. Many scientists are convinced that stem cell research also will lead to a better understanding of fundamental aspects of biology in the areas of cellular differentiation, organ regeneration, regenerative medicine, and epigenetics as well as the science of cancer. In this light, stem cell research simultaneously represents a domain of both critical basic research and promising clinical application. In sum, stem cell research is rapidly advancing science in profound ways, and has great potential to positively affect our health as well as our quality of life. To more fully understand the complexities that underlie stem cell biology, it is critical to appreciate the definition of terms, understanding of the embryology, and the process of generating stem cells. Soon after fertilization, the haploid egg and sperm nuclei merge to form a single nucleus with the diploid number of chromosomes. The one-cell zygote divides as it moves along in the fallopian tube, where it continues to divide. Up until the 8-cell stage, each cell is totipotent.

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Totipotent means that each cell can give rise to all the 220 cell types in the embryo plus the extra-embryonic tissues necessary to form the placenta and yolk sac that together allow for the development of the fetus. The ability to form the placenta is a defining feature of totipotent cells.

Soon after fertilization, the haploid egg and sperm nuclei merge to form a single nucleus with the diploid number of chromosomes. The one-cell zygote divides as it moves along in the fallopian tube, where it continues to divide. Up until the 8-cell stage, each cell is totipotent. As the embryo travels along the oviduct, the cells continue to proliferate and the morula develops into a blastocyst that contains a cavity. The outer layer of cells of the blastocyst will go on to form the placenta and other supporting tissues needed for fetal development in the uterus.

The inner cell mass of cells located at the polarized end of the cavity contain the embryonic stem cells. These cells are of particular interest to researchers and others as they will eventually mature to form virtually all of the tissues in the human body.

These are images of blastocysts, caught on the head of a pin. In the picture on the right, the blastocyst is opened revealing the inner cell mass containing the stem cells.

What does pluripotent mean? What is important to know here is that while the inner cell mass cells can form virtually every type of cell found in the body, and therefore the cells are considered pluripotent, they cannot form an entire organism because they are unable to give rise to the placenta and other tissues necessary for gestational development in the uterus. This is a key point. Because their potential is not total, they are not totipotent only totipotent cells can go on to develop into a fetus. Pluripotent cells will form every cell in the body but will never form an embryo.

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Cells as the basic units of life The basis of stem cell biology begins with the understanding that cells form the basic units of life. In the 1600s, using his microscope, Robert Hooke observed small living compartments within cork plants. Likening the little units of cork tissue to miniature rooms or chambers, he coined the term "cells from the Latin word cella meaning a small room.

It took the scientific community two centuries to appreciate Hookes initial observations. By the mid 1800s, scientists such as Theodore Schwann began formulating the cellular theory of life which contained two major conclusions:

In 1908, at the Congress of the Hematologic Society in Berlin, Russian histologist Alexander Maksimov first proposed the term stem cell perhaps after noting that the stem of a tree gives rise to a variety of branches.

Cell specialization, for the 220 histologically different cell types characterized in the human body, is thus determined by the activation and suppression of a specific subset of the 20,000-25,000 genes representing 5% of the human genome. In addition, we are learning more about the role of the other 95% of the genome that has historically been referred to as junk DNA, which might not be junk after all (see Module 3 - Cellular differentiation to understand the newly discovered critical functions of junk DNA). (Wang, Huang et al.)

Self renewal is the ability of stem cells to divide indefinitely, producing a population of identical offspring. The concept of self-renewing stem cells originated in the 1960s with McCulloch and Till who demonstrated the presence of self-renewing cells in mouse bone marrow, which we now know are hematopoietic stem cells (Becker, Mc et al. 1963; Siminovitch, McCulloch et al. 1963). Today, cell surface markers and the expression of transcription factors are important characteristics of cellular differentiation.

Plasticity describes the capacity of stem cells to undergo an asymmetric division, cued by environmental conditions and genetic factors, to produce two dissimilar daughter cells. As of 2015, there is still controversy whether stem cells undergo symmetical or asymmetical division. In asymmetrical division, one daughter cell, identical to the parent,continues to contribute to the original stem cell line, while the other daughter cell differentiates into specialized cell types. Symmetrical division gives rises to two identical daughter cells that are either stem cells or cells that have begun to differentiate. Plasticity also describes the ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment.

But not all stem cells exhibit these properties of self renewal and plasticity. While hematopoietic and embryonic stem cells exhibit these properties, other adult stem cells may only be committed to exhibit plasticity in their ability to differentiate into other types of cells.

The hallmark property of stem cells is their ability to differentiate into a wide variety of different cell types. Thus, scientists must demonstrate that the cells they have obtained are bona fide stem cells based on their capacity to differentiate into several other types of terminal or lineage progenitor cells.

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Pluripotent stem cells are found in the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and have the capacity to form any of the three germ layers that compose over 200 different cell types found in the body, excluding the placenta. Multipotent stem cells are derived from adult tissue, such as umbilical cord blood and bone marrow, and generally do not have the same capacity to differentiate into all the different cell types of the human body. Sources of stem cells Traditionally, there have been four primary tissue sources to obtain human stem cells: embryo, fetus, neonatal (including cord blood), and adult tissue. While most tissues and organs of the human body contain stem cells, their frequency varies from organ to organ. In circulating blood, for example, only 1:100,000 cells are stem cells, while the percentage of stem cells in bone marrow is much greater.

In addition, in the adult, most organs have a unique type of stem cell that can be identified by the specific cell surface markers it expresses.

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At the same time that Thomson reported his results, researchers from Johns Hopkins University, led by John Gearhart, described a method to isolate and culture immature germ cells from 5 to 8 week-old fetuses that were donated anonymously by women undergoing therapeutic or spontaneous abortions (Shamblott, Axelman et al. 1998). Dr. Gearhart and colleagues collected stem cells from the germinal centers of the ovaries or testes of the fetus and placed them in plastic dishes. They then added factors that enabled the germ stem cells to continue to divide, while simultaneously retaining them in a state of suspended development that prevented them from differentiating. These germ cell-derived stem cells could also be frozen, recovered, and maintained as stem cells in culture. Interestingly, Gearharts initial purpose for his research was merely to develop a tool for studying Downs syndrome.

The great advantage of deriving stem cells via iPS is that this remarkable technology does not require the destruction of human embryos. Moreover, the potential of iPS means that future stem cell therapies could be based on a patient's own cells (Takahashi and Yamanaka 2006). This is a key point since the use of ones own cells in stem cell therapy would eliminate the issue of tissue rejection, which is a critical problem in most organ donation scenarios. Tissue rejection would likely be an issue if patients were to receive stem cells from someone else. [insert religious views on the destruction of human embryos]

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Disadvantages of using embryonic stem cells The major disadvantages of embryonic stem cells, apart from ethical considerations, are that they may be rejected if transplanted into an HLA incompatible person, and more importantly, that they may form tumors more easily than adult-derived stem cells.

Advantages of using adult stem cells Most adult tissues contain multipotent stem cells. The most common source for multipotent stem cells is bone marrow. Bone marrow-derived stem cells in large measure generate the multiple cell types cells found in the blood. However, scientists can direct the differentiation process of bone marrow to differentiate into a variety of other cell types (Choi, Kurtz et al. 2011). Thus, there are considerable efforts undertaken to expand the ability of adult stem cells to differentiate into even more kinds of specialized cell types.

In addition, the ease with which bone marrow cells can be obtained, coupled with our experience using these cells in a variety of treatments (e.g., leukemia), have been a great impetus for further investigation of bone marrow as a source for adult stem cells.

While bone marrow-derived cells can differentiate into a variety of blood cells and other cell types, they are not as pluripotent as are embryonic stem cells. Nonetheless, there is a significant advantage to using bone marrow or any adult-derived stem cells in autologous therapy, as the risk of tissue rejection is avoided by using the patients own cells.

Disadvantages of using adult stem cells Adult derived stem cells, however, have some disadvantages in therapeutic applications. To date, disadvantages of adult stem cells are that they are:

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stemcellbioethics - Module 1 - The Biology of Stem Cells

There are many ways in which human stem cells can be used in research and the clinic. Studies of human embryonic stem cells will yield information about the complex events that occur during human development. A primary goal of this work is to identify how undifferentiated stem cells become the differentiated cells that form the tissues and organs Continue reading

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CDC - Arthritis - Basics - Definition - Osteoarthritis

Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation of one or more joints.[1][2] There are over 100 different forms of arthritis.[3][4] The most common form of arthritis is osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), a result of trauma to the joint, infection of the joint, or age. Other arthritis forms are rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and related autoimmune diseases. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. Continue reading

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Arthritis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psoriasis (psoriasis vulgaris) is een chronische auto-immuunziekte, gekenmerkt door een versnelde deling (proliferatie) en verminderde rijping (differentiatie) van hoorncellen in de opperhuid. Omdat de cellen niet normaal uitrijpen is ook het afschilferen verstoord, waardoor lokaal sterke afschilfering van huidschubben op de aangedane plaatsen plaatsvindt. Hoewel psoriasis vooral tot uiting komt in de huid, is het niet primair een huidprobleem, maar een ontregeling van het immuunsysteem (auto-immuunziekte[1][2][3]) Continue reading

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Psoriasis - Wikipedia

Im truly excited to be bringing you this information today about the miraculous healing abilities of aloe vera. First off, in case you dont know, let me emphasize that I dont sell aloe vera products of any kind, I havent been paid to write this article, and I dont earn any commissions from the sale of any products mentioned here. Continue reading

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Osteoarthritis (OA) also known as degenerative arthritis, degenerative joint disease, or osteoarthrosis, is a type of joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone.[1] The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. Initially, symptoms may occur only following exercise, but over time may become constant Continue reading

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Back pain is a very common complaint. According to the Mayo Clinic, approximately 80% of all Americans will have low back pain at least once in their lives. Back pain is a common reason for absence from work and doctor visits Continue reading

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Back Pain: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments - Medical News ...

Cancer i, also known as a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm, is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.[1][2] Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body.[2] Possible signs and symptoms include: a new lump, abnormal bleeding, a prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements among others.[3] While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may also occur due to other issues.[3] There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.[2] Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths.[1] Another 10% is due to obesity, a poor diet, lack of physical activity, and consumption of alcohol.[1][4] Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing radiation, and environmental pollutants.[5] In the developing world nearly 20% of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human papillomavirus (HPV).[1] These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell.[6] Typically many such genetic changes are required before cancer develops.[6] Approximately 510% of cancers are due to genetic defects inherited from a persons parents.[7] Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests.[1] It is then typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy.[8] Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, being vaccinated against certain infectious diseases, not eating too much red meat, and avoiding too much exposure to sunlight.[9][10] Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and colorectal cancer.[11] The benefits of screening in breast cancer are controversial.[11][12] Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy.[1][13] Pain and symptom management are an important part of care. Palliative care is particularly important in those with advanced disease.[1] The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at the start of treatment.[6] In children under 15 at diagnosis the five year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80%.[14] For cancer in the United States the average five year survival rate is 66%.[15] In 2012 about 14.1 million new cases of cancer occurred globally (not including skin cancer other than melanoma).[6] It caused about 8.2 million deaths or 14.6% of all human deaths.[6][16] The most common types of cancer in males are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and stomach cancer, and in females, the most common types are breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and cervical cancer.[6] If skin cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancers each year it would account for around 40% of cases.[17][18] In children, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and brain tumors are most common except in Africa where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often.[14] In 2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer. The risk of cancer increases significantly with age and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries.[6] Rates are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world.[19] The financial costs of cancer have been estimated at $1.16 trillion US dollars per year as of 2010.[20] Cancers are a large family of diseases that involve abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.[1][2] They form a subset of neoplasms Continue reading

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Stem Cell Treatment for Multiple Sclerosis

Nowadays, there are millions of people living with kidney failure. To a large extent, kidney failure decreases patients life quality severely. Thereby, patients are eager to know is stem cells in China helpful to patients with kidney failur...Read More

IgA Nephropathy is caused by the deposition of IgA, without a timely and effective prevention and control, the kidney function will decline seriously. Traditionally, patients will be recommended with some hormones to remit their symptoms an...Read More

With the development medical science, the Treatment for Chronic Kidney Disease has been not so difficult and more and more patients take stem cell transplant therapy to reverse their kidney function. In beginning of the year of 2015, we hop...Read More

In the past, the only stage 5 kidney failure treatment is kidney transplant, but with the medical development, Stem Cell Therapy as the latest therapy has been used in treating kidney disease, now in India, USA, China, Stem Cell Therapy all...Read More

As the second advanced stage of kidney disease, there must be a certain fear in stage 4 kidney failure patients heart. An efficient treatment means the one which can reverse the condition and help patients live a normal life. The applicatio...Read More

Both Micro-Chinese Medicine Osmotherapy and Stem Cell Therapy are efficient treatments for kidney diseases. Their applications in treating kidney disease bring patients new hopes. Now follow us to learn more about Micro-Chinese Medicine Osm...Read More

Kidney failure patients have not been sentenced to death yet. Kidney failure itself will not cause death directly, but its severe complications can. Doctors will adopt the corresponding measures to deal with complications, however, to manag...Read More

End Stage Renal Failure is the last stage of chronic kidney disease, so it is the most severe stage. When condition develops End Stage Renal Failure, patients believe that dialysis or kidney transplant will be their only choice. However, is...Read More

In addition to dialysis and kidney transplant, nowadays the application of Micro-Chinese Medicine Osmotherapy, Immunotherapy and Stem Cell Therapy brings new hopes for chronic kidney failure patients. Now follow us to learn more about Stem...Read More

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Stem Cells Transplant For Renal Failure-Kidney Failure

The Section of Ophthalmology and Visual Science provides medical and surgical treatment of eye diseases. The section members' interests include cataract surgery with lens implantation, transplantation including corneal diseases plus refractive surgery, vitreo-retinal surgery, and medical diseases of the retina including special treatment of diabetic retinopathy and age-related retinal degenerations, eye plastic surgery, strabismus surgery, and neuro-opthalmology.

Refractive surgery is based on special imaging of the cornea obtained by the computer. The surgery is employed to correct irregularities in the cornea. In selected cases, we also use surgery to correct refractive errors, eliminating the need for glasses.

The Retinal Imaging and Laser Treatment Center uses a computer to analyze retinal diseases in preparation for laser treatment. The vitreo-retinal center also specializes in difficult diagnostic problems including hereditary defects of the retina.

Glaucoma diagnosis and treatment is based on special computer-generated visual field testing and optical nerve imaging. The treatment includes outpatient laser as well as surgical intervention.

Strabismus surgery is based on television analysis and orthoptic testing of ocular motility. Treatment is carried out, in special cases, with sutures that can be adjusted after surgery for perfect alignment. Chemical injection replaces surgery in selected cases.

Neuro-ophthalmology consultation is available, as is ocular plastic surgery for external and eyelid defects.

All eye care services are located on the University of Chicago medical campus:

Duchossois Center for Advanced Medicine 5758 S. Maryland Avenue, Clinic 1B Chicago, IL 60637

UCH_004213 (11)

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Ophthalmology - The University of Chicago Medicine

Regenerative medicine is an emerging branch of medicine with the goal of restoring organ and/or tissue function for patients with serious injuries or chronic disease in which the bodies own responses are not sufficient enough to restore functional tissue. A growing crisis in organ transplantation and an aging population have driven a search for new and alternative therapies. There are approximately 90,000 patients in the US transplant-waiting list. In addition there are a wide array of major unmet medical needs which might be addressed by regenerative technologies.

New and current Regenerative Medicines can use stem cells to create living and functional tissues to regenerate and repair tissue and organs in the body that are damaged due to age, disease and congenital defects. Stem cells have the power to go to these damaged areas and regenerate new cells and tissues by performing a repair and a renewal process, restoring functionality. Regenerative medicine has the potential to provide a cure to failing or impaired tissues.

While some believe the therapeutic potential of stem cells has been overstated, an analysis of the potential benefits of stem cells based therapies indicates that 128 million people in the United States alone may benefit with the largest impact on patients with Cardiovascular disorders (5.5 million), autoimmune disorders (35 million) and diabetes (16 million US patients and more than 217 million worldwide): US patients with other disorders likely to benefit include osteoporosis (10 million), severe burns (0.3 million),spinal cord injuries (0.25 million).

Source: M.E. Furph, Principles of Regenerative Medicine (2008)

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What is Stem Cell Therapy? - American Academy of Anti ...

Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services.[1] From its inception, biotechnology has maintained a close relationship with society. Although now most often associated with the development of drugs, historically biotechnology has been principally associated with food, addressing such issues as malnutrition and famine. The history of biotechnology begins with zymotechnology, which commenced with a focus on brewing techniques for beer. By World War I, however, zymotechnology would expand to tackle larger industrial issues, and the potential of industrial fermentation gave rise to biotechnology. However, both the single-cell protein and gasohol projects failed to progress due to varying issues including public resistance, a changing economic scene, and shifts in political power.

Yet the formation of a new field, genetic engineering, would soon bring biotechnology to the forefront of science in society, and the intimate relationship between the scientific community, the public, and the government would ensue. These debates gained exposure in 1975 at the Asilomar Conference, where Joshua Lederberg was the most outspoken supporter for this emerging field in biotechnology. By as early as 1978, with the synthesis of synthetic human insulin, Lederberg's claims would prove valid, and the biotechnology industry grew rapidly. Each new scientific advance became a media event designed to capture public support, and by the 1980s, biotechnology grew into a promising real industry. In 1988, only five proteins from genetically engineered cells had been approved as drugs by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but this number would skyrocket to over 125 by the end of the 1990s.

The field of genetic engineering remains a heated topic of discussion in today's society with the advent of gene therapy, stem cell research, cloning, and genetically modified food. While it seems only natural nowadays to link pharmaceutical drugs as solutions to health and societal problems, this relationship of biotechnology serving social needs began centuries ago.

Biotechnology arose from the field of zymotechnology or zymurgy, which began as a search for a better understanding of industrial fermentation, particularly beer. Beer was an important industrial, and not just social, commodity. In late 19th century Germany, brewing contributed as much to the gross national product as steel, and taxes on alcohol proved to be significant sources of revenue to the government.[2] In the 1860s, institutes and remunerative consultancies were dedicated to the technology of brewing. The most famous was the private Carlsberg Institute, founded in 1875, which employed Emil Christian Hansen, who pioneered the pure yeast process for the reliable production of consistent beer. Less well known were private consultancies that advised the brewing industry. One of these, the Zymotechnic Institute, was established in Chicago by the German-born chemist John Ewald Siebel.

The heyday and expansion of zymotechnology came in World War I in response to industrial needs to support the war. Max Delbrck grew yeast on an immense scale during the war to meet 60 percent of Germany's animal feed needs.[3] Compounds of another fermentation product, lactic acid, made up for a lack of hydraulic fluid, glycerol. On the Allied side the Russian chemist Chaim Weizmann used starch to eliminate Britain's shortage of acetone, a key raw material in explosives, by fermenting maize to acetone. The industrial potential of fermentation was outgrowing its traditional home in brewing, and "zymotechnology" soon gave way to "biotechnology."

With food shortages spreading and resources fading, some dreamed of a new industrial solution. The Hungarian Kroly Ereky coined the word "biotechnology" in Hungary during 1919 to describe a technology based on converting raw materials into a more useful product. He built a slaughterhouse for a thousand pigs and also a fattening farm with space for 50,000 pigs, raising over 100,000 pigs a year. The enterprise was enormous, becoming one of the largest and most profitable meat and fat operations in the world. In a book entitled Biotechnologie, Ereky further developed a theme that would be reiterated through the 20th century: biotechnology could provide solutions to societal crises, such as food and energy shortages. For Ereky, the term "biotechnologie" indicated the process by which raw materials could be biologically upgraded into socially useful products.[4]

This catchword spread quickly after the First World War, as "biotechnology" entered German dictionaries and was taken up abroad by business-hungry private consultancies as far away as the United States. In Chicago, for example, the coming of prohibition at the end of World War I encouraged biological industries to create opportunities for new fermentation products, in particular a market for nonalcoholic drinks. Emil Siebel, the son of the founder of the Zymotechnic Institute, broke away from his father's company to establish his own called the "Bureau of Biotechnology," which specifically offered expertise in fermented nonalcoholic drinks.[5]

The belief that the needs of an industrial society could be met by fermenting agricultural waste was an important ingredient of the "chemurgic movement."[6] Fermentation-based processes generated products of ever-growing utility. In the 1940s, penicillin was the most dramatic. While it was discovered in England, it was produced industrially in the U.S. using a deep fermentation process originally developed in Peoria, Illinois. The enormous profits and the public expectations penicillin engendered caused a radical shift in the standing of the pharmaceutical industry. Doctors used the phrase "miracle drug", and the historian of its wartime use, David Adams, has suggested that to the public penicillin represented the perfect health that went together with the car and the dream house of wartime American advertising.[7] In the 1950s, steroids were synthesized using fermentation technology. In particular, cortisone promised the same revolutionary ability to change medicine as penicillin had.

Even greater expectations of biotechnology were raised during the 1960s by a process that grew single-cell protein. When the so-called protein gap threatened world hunger, producing food locally by growing it from waste seemed to offer a solution. It was the possibilities of growing microorganisms on oil that captured the imagination of scientists, policy makers, and commerce.[8] Major companies such as British Petroleum (BP) staked their futures on it. In 1962, BP built a pilot plant at Cap de Lavera in Southern France to publicize its product, Toprina.[9] Initial research work at Lavera was done by Alfred Champagnat,[10] In 1963, construction started on BP's second pilot plant at Grangemouth Oil Refinery in Britain.[10]

As there was no well-accepted term to describe the new foods, in 1966 the term "single-cell protein" (SCP) was coined at MIT to provide an acceptable and exciting new title, avoiding the unpleasant connotations of microbial or bacterial.[9]

The "food from oil" idea became quite popular by the 1970s, when facilities for growing yeast fed by n-paraffins were built in a number of countries. The Soviets were particularly enthusiastic, opening large "BVK" (belkovo-vitaminny kontsentrat, i.e., "protein-vitamin concentrate") plants next to their oil refineries in Kstovo (1973) [11][12][13] and Kirishi (1974).[14]

By the late 1970s, however, the cultural climate had completely changed, as the growth in SCP interest had taken place against a shifting economic and cultural scene (136). First, the price of oil rose catastrophically in 1974, so that its cost per barrel was five times greater than it had been two years earlier. Second, despite continuing hunger around the world, anticipated demand also began to shift from humans to animals. The program had begun with the vision of growing food for Third World people, yet the product was instead launched as an animal food for the developed world. The rapidly rising demand for animal feed made that market appear economically more attractive. The ultimate downfall of the SCP project, however, came from public resistance.[15]

This was particularly vocal in Japan, where production came closest to fruition. For all their enthusiasm for innovation and traditional interest in microbiologically produced foods, the Japanese were the first to ban the production of single-cell proteins. The Japanese ultimately were unable to separate the idea of their new "natural" foods from the far from natural connotation of oil.[15] These arguments were made against a background of suspicion of heavy industry in which anxiety over minute traces of petroleum was expressed. Thus, public resistance to an unnatural product led to the end of the SCP project as an attempt to solve world hunger.

Also, in 1989 in the USSR, the public environmental concerns made the government decide to close down (or convert to different technologies) all 8 paraffin-fed-yeast plants that the Soviet Ministry of Microbiological Industry had by that time.[14]

In the late 1970s, biotechnology offered another possible solution to a societal crisis. The escalation in the price of oil in 1974 increased the cost of the Western world's energy tenfold.[16] In response, the U.S. government promoted the production of gasohol, gasoline with 10 percent alcohol added, as an answer to the energy crisis.[7] In 1979, when the Soviet Union sent troops to Afghanistan, the Carter administration cut off its supplies to agricultural produce in retaliation, creating a surplus of agriculture in the U.S. As a result, fermenting the agricultural surpluses to synthesize fuel seemed to be an economical solution to the shortage of oil threatened by the Iran-Iraq war. Before the new direction could be taken, however, the political wind changed again: the Reagan administration came to power in January 1981 and, with the declining oil prices of the 1980s, ended support for the gasohol industry before it was born.[17]

Biotechnology seemed to be the solution for major social problems, including world hunger and energy crises. In the 1960s, radical measures would be needed to meet world starvation, and biotechnology seemed to provide an answer. However, the solutions proved to be too expensive and socially unacceptable, and solving world hunger through SCP food was dismissed. In the 1970s, the food crisis was succeeded by the energy crisis, and here too, biotechnology seemed to provide an answer. But once again, costs proved prohibitive as oil prices slumped in the 1980s. Thus, in practice, the implications of biotechnology were not fully realized in these situations. But this would soon change with the rise of genetic engineering.

The origins of biotechnology culminated with the birth of genetic engineering. There were two key events that have come to be seen as scientific breakthroughs beginning the era that would unite genetics with biotechnology. One was the 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick, and the other was the 1973 discovery by Cohen and Boyer of a recombinant DNA technique by which a section of DNA was cut from the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium and transferred into the DNA of another.[18] This approach could, in principle, enable bacteria to adopt the genes and produce proteins of other organisms, including humans. Popularly referred to as "genetic engineering," it came to be defined as the basis of new biotechnology.

Genetic engineering proved to be a topic that thrust biotechnology into the public scene, and the interaction between scientists, politicians, and the public defined the work that was accomplished in this area. Technical developments during this time were revolutionary and at times frightening. In December 1967, the first heart transplant by Christian Barnard reminded the public that the physical identity of a person was becoming increasingly problematic. While poetic imagination had always seen the heart at the center of the soul, now there was the prospect of individuals being defined by other people's hearts.[19] During the same month, Arthur Kornberg announced that he had managed to biochemically replicate a viral gene. "Life had been synthesized," said the head of the National Institutes of Health.[19] Genetic engineering was now on the scientific agenda, as it was becoming possible to identify genetic characteristics with diseases such as beta thalassemia and sickle-cell anemia.

Responses to scientific achievements were colored by cultural skepticism. Scientists and their expertise were looked upon with suspicion. In 1968, an immensely popular work, The Biological Time Bomb, was written by the British journalist Gordon Rattray Taylor. The author's preface saw Kornberg's discovery of replicating a viral gene as a route to lethal doomsday bugs. The publisher's blurb for the book warned that within ten years, "You may marry a semi-artificial man or womanchoose your children's sextune out painchange your memoriesand live to be 150 if the scientific revolution doesnt destroy us first."[20] The book ended with a chapter called "The Future If Any." While it is rare for current science to be represented in the movies, in this period of "Star Trek", science fiction and science fact seemed to be converging. "Cloning" became a popular word in the media. Woody Allen satirized the cloning of a person from a nose in his 1973 movie Sleeper, and cloning Adolf Hitler from surviving cells was the theme of the 1976 novel by Ira Levin, The Boys from Brazil.[21]

In response to these public concerns, scientists, industry, and governments increasingly linked the power of recombinant DNA to the immensely practical functions that biotechnology promised. One of the key scientific figures that attempted to highlight the promising aspects of genetic engineering was Joshua Lederberg, a Stanford professor and Nobel laureate. While in the 1960s "genetic engineering" described eugenics and work involving the manipulation of the human genome, Lederberg stressed research that would involve microbes instead.[22] Lederberg emphasized the importance of focusing on curing living people. Lederberg's 1963 paper, "Biological Future of Man" suggested that, while molecular biology might one day make it possible to change the human genotype, "what we have overlooked is euphenics, the engineering of human development."[23] Lederberg constructed the word "euphenics" to emphasize changing the phenotype after conception rather than the genotype which would affect future generations.

With the discovery of recombinant DNA by Cohen and Boyer in 1973, the idea that genetic engineering would have major human and societal consequences was born. In July 1974, a group of eminent molecular biologists headed by Paul Berg wrote to Science suggesting that the consequences of this work were so potentially destructive that there should be a pause until its implications had been thought through.[24] This suggestion was explored at a meeting in February 1975 at California's Monterey Peninsula, forever immortalized by the location, Asilomar. Its historic outcome was an unprecedented call for a halt in research until it could be regulated in such a way that the public need not be anxious, and it led to a 16-month moratorium until National Institutes of Health (NIH) guidelines were established.

Joshua Lederberg was the leading exception in emphasizing, as he had for years, the potential benefits. At Asilomar, in an atmosphere favoring control and regulation, he circulated a paper countering the pessimism and fears of misuses with the benefits conferred by successful use. He described "an early chance for a technology of untold importance for diagnostic and therapeutic medicine: the ready production of an unlimited variety of human proteins. Analogous applications may be foreseen in fermentation process for cheaply manufacturing essential nutrients, and in the improvement of microbes for the production of antibiotics and of special industrial chemicals."[25] In June 1976, the 16-month moratorium on research expired with the Director's Advisory Committee (DAC) publication of the NIH guidelines of good practice. They defined the risks of certain kinds of experiments and the appropriate physical conditions for their pursuit, as well as a list of things too dangerous to perform at all. Moreover, modified organisms were not to be tested outside the confines of a laboratory or allowed into the environment.[18]

Atypical as Lederberg was at Asilomar, his optimistic vision of genetic engineering would soon lead to the development of the biotechnology industry. Over the next two years, as public concern over the dangers of recombinant DNA research grew, so too did interest in its technical and practical applications. Curing genetic diseases remained in the realms of science fiction, but it appeared that producing human simple proteins could be good business. Insulin, one of the smaller, best characterized and understood proteins, had been used in treating type 1 diabetes for a half century. It had been extracted from animals in a chemically slightly different form from the human product. Yet, if one could produce synthetic human insulin, one could meet an existing demand with a product whose approval would be relatively easy to obtain from regulators. In the period 1975 to 1977, synthetic "human" insulin represented the aspirations for new products that could be made with the new biotechnology. Microbial production of synthetic human insulin was finally announced in September 1978 and was produced by a startup company, Genentech.,[26] although that company did not commercialize the product themselves, instead, it licensed the production method to Eli Lilly and Company. 1978 also saw the first application for a patent on a gene, the gene which produces human growth hormone, by the University of California, thus introducing the legal principle that genes could be patented. Since that filing, almost 20% of the more than 20,000 genes in the human DNA have been patented.[27]

The radical shift in the connotation of "genetic engineering" from an emphasis on the inherited characteristics of people to the commercial production of proteins and therapeutic drugs was nurtured by Joshua Lederberg. His broad concerns since the 1960s had been stimulated by enthusiasm for science and its potential medical benefits. Countering calls for strict regulation, he expressed a vision of potential utility. Against a belief that new techniques would entail unmentionable and uncontrollable consequences for humanity and the environment, a growing consensus on the economic value of recombinant DNA emerged.

With ancestral roots in industrial microbiology that date back centuries, the new biotechnology industry grew rapidly beginning in the mid-1970s. Each new scientific advance became a media event designed to capture investment confidence and public support.[28] Although market expectations and social benefits of new products were frequently overstated, many people were prepared to see genetic engineering as the next great advance in technological progress. By the 1980s, biotechnology characterized a nascent real industry, providing titles for emerging trade organizations such as the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO).

The main focus of attention after insulin were the potential profit makers in the pharmaceutical industry: human growth hormone and what promised to be a miraculous cure for viral diseases, interferon. Cancer was a central target in the 1970s because increasingly the disease was linked to viruses.[29] By 1980, a new company, Biogen, had produced interferon through recombinant DNA. The emergence of interferon and the possibility of curing cancer raised money in the community for research and increased the enthusiasm of an otherwise uncertain and tentative society. Moreover, to the 1970s plight of cancer was added AIDS in the 1980s, offering an enormous potential market for a successful therapy, and more immediately, a market for diagnostic tests based on monoclonal antibodies.[30] By 1988, only five proteins from genetically engineered cells had been approved as drugs by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA): synthetic insulin, human growth hormone, hepatitis B vaccine, alpha-interferon, and tissue plasminogen activator (TPa), for lysis of blood clots. By the end of the 1990s, however, 125 more genetically engineered drugs would be approved.[30]

Genetic engineering also reached the agricultural front as well. There was tremendous progress since the market introduction of the genetically engineered Flavr Savr tomato in 1994.[31] Ernst and Young reported that in 1998, 30% of the U.S. soybean crop was expected to be from genetically engineered seeds. In 1998, about 30% of the US cotton and corn crops were also expected to be products of genetic engineering.[31]

Genetic engineering in biotechnology stimulated hopes for both therapeutic proteins, drugs and biological organisms themselves, such as seeds, pesticides, engineered yeasts, and modified human cells for treating genetic diseases. From the perspective of its commercial promoters, scientific breakthroughs, industrial commitment, and official support were finally coming together, and biotechnology became a normal part of business. No longer were the proponents for the economic and technological significance of biotechnology the iconoclasts.[32] Their message had finally become accepted and incorporated into the policies of governments and industry.

According to Burrill and Company, an industry investment bank, over $350 billion has been invested in biotech since the emergence of the industry, and global revenues rose from $23 billion in 2000 to more than $50 billion in 2005. The greatest growth has been in Latin America but all regions of the world have shown strong growth trends. By 2007 and into 2008, though, a downturn in the fortunes of biotech emerged, at least in the United Kingdom, as the result of declining investment in the face of failure of biotech pipelines to deliver and a consequent downturn in return on investment.[33]

There has been little innovation in the traditional pharmaceutical industry over the past decade and biopharmaceuticals are now achieving the fastest rates of growth against this background, particularly in breast cancer treatment. Biopharmaceuticals typically treat sub-sets of the total population with a disease whereas traditional drugs are developed to treat the population as a whole. However, one of the great difficulties with traditional drugs are the toxic side effects the incidence of which can be unpredictable in individual patients.

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History of biotechnology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

False hope for real money

Internet sites for clinics all around the worldincluding the US, but especially in China, India, the Caribbean, Latin America, and nations of the former Soviet Unionoffer stem-cell-based treatments for people suffering from a dizzying array of serious conditions.

Never mind that cancer is the only disease category for which there is published, scientifically valid evidence showing that stem cell therapy may help. Thousands, if not tens of thousands, of desperate people are flocking to clinics that charge tens of thousands of dollars for every unproven treatment.

Traveling for therapy, or stem cell tourism, was the subject of a panel discussion titled Stem Cell Therapy and Medical Tourism: Of Promise and Peril? arranged by HSCI in collaboration with the Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics.

Brock Reeve, HSCI executive director, introduced the topic by pointing out that there are positive and negative aspects to medical tourism. For example, patients flock from all over the world to the Harvard-affiliated Massachusetts General Hospital, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Dana-Farber Center Institute, and other Boston research hospitals for cutting-edge, scientifically validated treatments for a host of diseases.

But then there is the other kind of medical tourism, and every member of the panel agreed with speaker Timothy A. Caulfield, LL.M, the Canada Research chair in health, law, and policy at the University of Alberta, when he said that the stem cell tourism phenomenon hurts the legitimacy of the entire field of stem cell science and medicine.

While adult stem cells have been used for decades to treat a number of malignanciesbone marrow transplants are, in fact, are the only stem cell treatments that are not experimental.

George Daley, MD, PhD, a member of the Harvard Stem Cell Institutes executive committee and past president of the International Society for Stem Cell Research, added that we are seeing a growing number [of legitimate clinical trials] but all such uses are experimental ... and there is great skepticism as to whether we have the scientific knowledge and basis even to predict that these will be effective. It may, he said, take decades before there is certainty. The only stem cell therapies that have been proven safe and effective, he said, are those constituting what is known as bone marrow transplantation for treatment of some cancers.

But the clinics selling stem cell therapy for a sweeping catalog of diseases arent offering patients places in clinical trials. They are touting what they claim are established treatments, with proven results. Caulfield said a number of his studies demonstrate that treatments are offered as safe, routine, and effective, but none of what is being offered matched what the scientific literature said. He accused the clinics of financial exploitation of desperate people, and said those who raise money to finance pilgrimages to them are raising money to turn over to a fraud.

I. Glenn Cohen, JD, professor at Harvard Law School and co-director of the Petrie-Flom Center, suggested that one way to slow stem cell tourism could be to prosecute for child abuse when the treatment involves minors. Cohen said that though he is sympathetic with parents seeking help for their ill children, this falls under existing child-abuse and neglect statutes.

Jill Lepore, PhD, chair of Harvards History and Literature Program, came at the issues from a very different perspective. I dont have patients, Lepore said, I have characters. She said there is a kind of faith in science that draws some people to any promise of a cure for disease, no matter how specious. What fuels this false hope, she said, is one of the most dangerous elements of our culture: that we have forgotten how to die.

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Stem cell tourism | Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI)

I am very grateful to ProgenCell for giving me back the full use of my leg. About five years ago I fractured my kneecap playing volleyball in college. My orthopedic surgeon wanted to operate but he couldnt guarantee success and even mentioned that there was a big chance that things would come out even worse than before, so I decided to let my knee heal on its own.

This has meant five years of pain and reduced mobility. During one of my periodic consultations with the orthopedic surgeon, he mentioned having read some reports in the international journals where stem cells had been used successfully. That made me curious and I started looking around the Internet to see whats available.

What I found was confusing at first and sounded contradictory. So many kinds of stem cells and used in so many different ways! Some of the clinics that I contacted wouldnt even give me the details of their treatments. Then a friend told me about ProgenCell and I was pleasantly surprised to learn how close they are to my home. I was able to visit them before deciding, and that helped me a lot.

My first visit to Tijuana was a real eye-opener. Not only has it become famous for stem cells, thanks to Bart Starrs story, but it is also a very nice place to walk around. I felt safer there than I do at home. Returning home was a breeze because ProgenCell gave me a pass to a restricted car lane just for medical tourists.

I had my first treatment a couple of months ago. It took only an hour or so, which gave me plenty of free time to visit Tijuanas colorful open-air market, its Cultural Center, and some really great restaurants. I was even able to visit an English-speaking dentist who charged me a fourth of what I would pay back home. This is not the city I used to hear about on television! My visits have been relaxing, rewarding and very interesting.

My stem cell treatment didnt make me feel like a different person right away. My doctors told me to expect that it would take some time for the cells to work their magic. The improvement was gradual but there seems to be more movement in my knee and Ive noticed recently that Im not refilling my pain prescription as often as I used to. ProgenCells solution has been like a miracle. Thank you so much, ProgenCell. I am looking forward to my next visit.

Sandra R.

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tourism

Countries colored in brown represent about 3.8 billion people, more than half the world's population. All have a permissive or flexible policy on human embryonic stem cell research and all except the U.S. have banned by law human reproductive cloning. Population: M = million.

Map Explanation

* Turkey is among several countries in which no specific regulations and guidelines have so far been defined by legal or governmental institutions for human embryonic stem cell research. Dr. Necati Findikli of Istanbul Memorial Hospital reported the first known derivation of human embryonic stem cells from donated blastocyst-stage embryos in Turkey in 2005. Reproductive Medicine Online 10 (5), 617-627, 2005.

Images and Video

Click above for discussion of The Stem Cell Dilemma on Hawaii Public Radio's public affairs program Town Square

Stem Cell Animation: RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Japan.

Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Video of Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate, April 11, 2007

Green, Ronald. Dartmouth News: The Ethics of Stem Cells, November 30, 2005

References

The ISSCR Guidelines for the Conduct of Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Feb. 1, 2007.

Countries with a permissive or flexible policy

"Stem Cells and the New 'Age of Discovery'" [PDF] AUTM Central Regional Meeting, Minneapolis, July 23, 2006 "Stem Cells, Regenerative Medicine, and Clusters of Innovation in the Asia-Pacific Region" [PDF] Stem Cells Asia 2010, Seoul, Oct. 28, 2010 "Stem Cell Research: Evolving Policy for a New Science" [PDF] University of Minnesota Stem Cell Institute, Nov. 17, 2010

A leading resource for information about stem cell policy on

Awarded a star by Kirkus Reviews for "remarkable merit"

World Stem Cell Map cited by:

Beaver, Nathan and Matthew Mulkeen. Under the Microscope: The International Legal & Business Issues Surrounding the Stem Cell Initiative. Foley & Lardner LLP, Washington D.C. BioJapan 2005. September 8, 2005. PDF [2.3 MB] Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate , April 11, 2007

Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Video of Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate, April 11, 2007 [short video]

Brito, Arturo. The Childrens Health Fund. "Stem Cell Research: The Ethics of Non-Action." September 1, 2007 PDF Caplan, Arthur. Medical College of Virginia, Oct. 11, 2004 and various stem cell academic presentations and public lectures. Website Department of Health, Catalonia, Spain. "Considerations concerning nuclear transfer," December 2005. [PDF] Dinnetz, Mattias Karlsson. "Stem Cell Research, Science Policy and the Emergence of an Academic Centre," Lund University, Sweden, 2006. Dodd David A. "Stem Cell Science & Technology: Commercialization Opportunities & Challenges," MIT Enterprise Forum of Atlanta, October 12, 2006. [podcast] Eisenstadter, Ingrid. "Blacklists and Blastocysts," Barron's, July 10, 2006. Epstein, David. "Free For All, Inside Higher Ed, July 25, 2006. Global Watch: Stem cell mission to China, Singapore and South Korea, Department of Trade & Industry, United Kingdom, September 2004. PDF Green, Ronald M. "Embryo and Fetal Research" In: The Cambridge Textbook of Bioethics, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Greenwood, Heather L. and Abdahlla S. Daar. "Regenerative Medicine" In: The Cambridge Textbook of Bioethics, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Gross, Michael. "Framework bolsters stem cell progress." Current Biology, 14 (15): R592-R593, August 10, 2004. House of Commons Library, UK Parliament, Research Paper 08/42, "Human Fertilisation and Embryology Bill," May 2, 2008 Hug, Christina. EuroStemCell Workshop - working paper, Lund University, Sweden, March 2006 [PDF] Kadereit, Suzanne. Stem Cell Research Symposium, New England School of Law. November 19, 2004. Website (ISSCR) Keane, Steve, The Case Against Blanket First Amendment Protection of Scientific Research: Articulating a More Limited Scope of Protection, Stanford Law Review: 59 (2) 505, 2006 [PDF]

Kirk, Mark, U.S. Congressman from the 10th Congressional District of Illinois. "Stem Cell Politics on Capitol Hill," BIO 2006, April 2006. PowerPoint

Knowles, Lori. The Business of Regulating Stem Cell Research, American Enterprise Institute, March 9, 2005. Stem Cell Research Symposium, New England School of Law. November 19, 2004. Website Latham, Stephen R. "Between public opinion and public policy: human embryonic stem-cell research and path-dependency." J Law Med Ethics 37(4): 800-6, 2009 Leist, Marcel et al. "The Biological and Ethical Basis of the Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells for In Vitro Test Systems or Cell Therapy," Altex 25 (3) 2008, pp. 163-190. [PDF] Levinson, Rachel. "How Policy is Made: Lessons from Current Issues," Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, November 15, 2005. PowerPoint McCabe, Linda L. and Edward R.B. McCabe.DNA: Promise and Peril, University of California Press, 2008 The Milken Institute. "Stem Cell Innovation: The Next-Frontier Economy?" California: State of the State Conference 2005: Renewing California's Global Leadership, October 31, 2005. [PDF - 4MB] UNESCO - International Bioethics Committee Report of the Working Group of IBC on Human Cloning and International Governance, September 2008 [PDF] Ott, Marie-Odile. "Human Embryo and Embryonic Stem Cell Research in France: State of the Art and Analysis ," Center for American Progress, June 15, 2007 [PDF] The Parliament of Victoria [Australia]: Therapeutic Cloning: The Infertility Treatment Amendment Bill 2007. Current Issues Brief No. 1, April 2007 [PDF] Peters, Ted. "The Stem Cell Debate in America and Around the Globe," Collegium for Advanced Studies, University of Helsinki, 20 September 2007 [Doc] Polina, Felipe. "Human Stem Cells - European National Innovation Systems and Patents," Lund University, Sweden, May 29, 2006 Salter, Brian. Evolution of the Life Science Industries: Policy and Regulation. Edinburgh, UK, February 23, 2005. Website Taylor, Stacy. Patenting the Products of Stem Cell Research: A Global Perspective. Foley & Lardner LLP, Washington D.C. BayBIO Stem Cell Program. September 19, 2005. PDF [1.1 MB] Trounson, Alan. Molecular Medicine Symposium: Stem Cell Biology and Human Disease. Salk Institute. March 18, 2005. Website. Walters, LeRoy. Public Policies on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research: An Intercultural Perspective. National Academy of Sciences Workshop, October 12, 2004. Website

World Stem Cell Map published by:

Anatolia College Model United Nations 2008. Bioethics Committee Study Guides, 2008 [PDF] Asahi Shimbun [Tokyo, Japan], Feb. 1, 2008 [PDF]

Biofutur: "Recherche sur les cellules souches," Marie-Odile Ott, January 2007 [PDF]

Burrill's BIOTECH 2007 Life Sciences: A Global Transformation Burrill's BIOTECH 2008 Life Sciences: A 20/20 Vision to 2020 CV Network (International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences), Fall 2004

"Global Culture" Financial Times, "An industry to grow," June 25, 2009

Financial Times, "Bush's veto of embryo stem cell law marks turning point with Congress," July 20, 2006 Financial Times, "Stem cell researchers hope for $3 billion boost," Oct. 28, 2004 Hoffman, John, Stem Cells: Part 6: Medical Tourism: seeking cures around the world, Philadelphia Examiner, April 25, 2009. Issues: Stem Cells by Peggy J. Parks, For: Compact Research: Current Issues, published by ReferencePoint Press, Fall 2008 Japan Science and Technology Agency - Center for Research and Development Strategy. G-TeC Report on Stem Cell Research, 2007 [PDF - in Japanese] The Journal of Life Sciences, September 2007. Mauron, A and ME Jaconi , "Stem cell science: Current ethical and policy issues," Nature - Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Advance online publication, July 18, 2007. [PDF] Schmickle, Sharon, "Stem cell stalemate: Minnesota authors say U.S. falling behind other nations," MinnPost.com. March 25, 2008

Sword and Shield: Dual Uses of Pathogen Research, Jan. 5, 2011. What do stem cells have to do with bioterrorism?

The Monitor Group: Joseph Fuller and Brock Reeve: "National Competitiveness in Stem Cell Science," February 2007

Nature, Dec. 22, 2005

Nature Biotechnology, July 2005 [Global Competitiveness / Stem Cell Research Map] NeuroInsights: The Neurotechnology Industry 2005 New Jersey Star-Ledger, March 20, 2005 Public Library of Science: PLoS Biology, July 2005 Public Library of Science: PLoS Medicine, May 2006

Red Herring, June 20, 2005

Red Herring, November 20, 2006

San Diego Union-Tribune, Dec. 17, 2006

Science Actualits Cit des Sciences, Paris, March 18, 2005 Science News, April 2, 2005 The Scientist, March 28, 2005. UK Trade & Investment: "Global commercialisation of UK stem cell research" [PDF], Nicola Perrin, University of Cambridge, August 2005.

Stem Cell Blogs:

California Stem Cell Report Stem Cell Network Blog Knoepfler Lab Stem Cell Blog, UC Davis School of Medicine

Maps created with GMT software Updated 1/7/13

World Stem Cell Map linked to by:

Wikipedia - Stem cell research policy National Institutes of Health - Stem Cell Information American Association for the Advancement of Science - AAAS Nature the Niche: the stem cell blog, Nature Nature Reports: Stem Cells, Nature Scientific American editors' blog International Society for Stem Cell Research - ISSCR Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology - FASEB Harvard University Stem Cell Institute Stem Cell Policy Aaron Levine, School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology Coalition for the Advancement of Medical Research -- CAMR The Globalism Institute - Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia Com Cincia Brazil International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences [PDF] Canada StemCellsChina.com China EurActiv.com European Union Science & Dcision, Universit d'vry & Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Bioethik Discurs Berlin, Germany Robert Koch Institut Germany RegenerationNet.com STERN BioRegion, Germany Tokugikon - Japanese Patent Office Society [PDF, in Japanese] Japan National Health Foundation - Bioethics Thailand UK Stem Cell Foundation United Kingdom Research!America Stem cell research resources Genetics Policy Institute Northwest Association for Biomedical Research NWABR Stem Cell Teacher Workshop and Educator: Selected Online Resources for Stem Cells Health Politics with Dr. Mike Magee Science Friday National Public Radio StemCellResources.org Bioscience Network in association with: the Biology Teachers Association of NJ and the National Association of Biology Teachers Results for America campaign Center for American Progress Grassroots Connection Online Neurological Advocacy CareCure Community W. M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience at Rutgers University Kirsch Foundation Medical Research California Stem Cell Report Great North Alliance Twin Cities Technology Resources Massachusetts General Hospital Indiana Center for Bioethics Michigan eLibrary Missouri Roundtable Ethical implications of biotechnological research Canadian Prescription Drugstore High School Bioethics Project University of Pennsylvania Center for Bioethics Cosmic Log by Alan Boyle MSNBC, Jan. 4, 2006 The Future of Biotechnology for Medical Applications in 2005, Governmental Issues ScenarioThinking.org Legal Restrictions for Biotech increasing in certain countries, decreasing in others ScenarioThinking.org

William Hoffman - hoffm003@umn.edu

Acknowledgments: Individuals who have provided foundational ideas, constructive criticism, encouragement or other input for the global bioscience maps include: Joseph Amato (Marshall, MN), Ivan Berkowitz (Winnipeg), William Brody (Baltimore), G. Steven Burrill (San Francisco), Arthur Caplan (Philadelphia), Rob Carlson (Seattle), Gareth Cook (Boston), Clive Cookson (London), David Cyranoski (Tokyo), David Durenberger (Minneapolis), Petr Dvorak (Czech Republic), Juan Enriquez (Rockville MD), Francis Fukuyama (Washington DC), Leo Furcht (Minneapolis), John Gearhart (Baltimore), William Gleason (Minneapolis), Ron Green (Dartmouth), Ginger Gruters (Washington, DC), Jon Hakim (Beijing), Michael Hoffman (Bloomington, MN), Suzanne Holland (Seattle), Abdul Latif Ibrahim (Malaysia), Marisa Jaconi (Geneva), William Johnson (Boston), Louis Johnston (Collegeville MN), Suzanne Kadereit (Singapore), Naoko Kimura (Bangkok), Lori Knowles (Edmonton), Zack Lynch (San Francisco), Stephen Minger (London), Martin Murphy (Durham NC), Thomas Murray (New York), William Neaves (Kansas City MO), Marie-Odile Ott (Paris), Robert Paarlberg (Wellesley, MA), Nicola Perrin (Cambridge UK), Douglas Petty (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Michael Porter (Boston), Walter Powell (Stanford), Clyde Prestowitz (Washington DC), John Rennie (New York), Kate Rubin (Minneapolis/St. Paul), G. Edward Schuh (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Lee Silver (Princeton), Peter Singer (Toronto), Doug Sipp (Kobe, Japan), Carl Sundberg (Stockholm), William Testa (Chicago), Alan Trounson (Melbourne), LeRoy Walters (Washington DC), Steven Weber (Berkeley), Sarah Youngerman (Minneapolis) and Laurie Zoloth (Chicago).

Disclaimer: This work is a communications project of William Hoffman, a non-faculty employee of the University of Minnesota, and not the University of Minnesota. It is meant to help inform public discussion of stem cell research and human development.

Awarded a star by Kirkus Reviews for "remarkable merit"

Foreword by Brock Reeve Preface Prologue: Into the Cave Agents of Hope Architects of Development Challengers of Ethics Barometers of Politics Objects of Competition Harbingers of Destruction Epilogue: Beyond the Darkness Bibliography Timeline Glossary Index

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Stem Cell Policy: World Stem Cell Map - MBBNet

It is astonishing how the cosmetic industry uses medical discoveries and put these formulas into skin cream jars.

In 2009 the American company Voss laboratories was the first that introduced stem cell active ingredients into a cosmetic product. Due to the fact that the company didnt reveal their secret ingredients, it created a worldwide rumor that the company might be using human stem cells.

The world started to question if this would be ethical and safe.

Coming from the medical stand point: with human stem cells you can actually build and rebuild human organs but also carcinogenic cell. For that reason it created great concerns.

Now days many trendsetting companies producing stem cell creams and serums that dont use human stem cells

Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types

Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, liver, and the Skin ( basal layer and fat layer) . They remain in a quiescent or non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.

Adult stem cells can divide ( copy) or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerates the entire original organ.

Plant Stem Cells benefits human skin.

Stem cells from a rare red grape variety provide the basis for Israel based company On-Macabim latest skin care ingredient.

This variety is one of the few red grapes that have red flesh and juice the majority have red skin but white flesh and juice which is due to the high quantity of anthocyanins in the fruit.

The anthocyanins, also present in the flesh, leading to higher antioxidant levels overall.

The technology was developed last year and allows to extract stem cells from the plant which can then be formulated into a cosmetic ingredient to help protect the stem cells in human skin.

To harvest the stem cells the company first induces a wound in the plant which causes the surrounding cells to dedifferentiate (turn back into stem cells) and form a wound healing tissue called a callus.

Once the wound has healed these cells can differentiate again and build new tissue

According to On-macabim, these plant stem cells contain components and epigenetic factors that can protect human skin stem cells form UV radiation, inflammation, oxidative stress, neutralize free radicals and reverse the effects of photoaging.

Stem cells are found in the epidermal layer of the skin and are involved in skin growth and regeneration. If they are harmed by UV radiation,

their power to regenerate will be jeopardized.

Grape stem cells have the ability to promote healthy skin proliferation.

Grape Stem Cells Counteract Negative

Effects of UV Radiation on

Skin Stem Cells

In an in-vitro study, skin stem cells were treated with and without

the Grape Stem Cells.

Some were exposed to UVA+UVB-light; others were unexposed.

CFE was determined in each case.

Results confirmed that cells treated with the Grape Stem Cells increased

the CFE of the skin stem cells. A 58% decrease in CFE was observed

when skin stem cells were exposed to UV radiation (control).

However, the presence of the Grape Stem Cells counteracted the negative effect of UV radiation on the cells as the CFE remained at the same level when exposed to the UV radiation.

Therefore, the Grape Stem Cells protect skin stem cells against UV stress.

Benefits of the Grape Stem Cell products

Regenerative, repair and rejuvenating properties

Comments are closed.

Link:
Stem cell and skin care. | Esthetics Association Florida

Dr Shifrin-Douglas is Board Certified Endocrinologist with more than 10 years of clinical experience, including 7 years of Academic Experience as an Assistant Clinical Professor of Endocrinology at Penn State Milton S Hershey Medical Center.

Dr Shifrin-Douglas has been selected as CASTLE CONNOLLY TOP DOCTOR in ENDOCRINOLOGY for 2015

Affiliations: -Jersey Shore University Medical Center -Monmouth Medical Center- press release

Providing consultation and treatment for an adults with following Endocrine problems:

Thyroid Gland:

In people with Hashimoto's hypothyroidism occurs at a rate of 4.3% per year versus 2.6% per year who do not have Hashimoto's. Evaluation for Hashimoto's should be considered when evaluating patients with recurrent miscarriage, with or without infertility.

________________

Parathyroid Glands

(abnormal calcium level):

Pituitary Gland:

Adrenal glands:

Bone Metabolism:

____________________

Genetic Endocrine Syndroms:

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (MEN 1)

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type2A and 2B(MEN 2A and MEN 2B)

Familial Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Syndrome (FMTC)

Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia (FHH)

Pregnancy and Infertility

Overt untreated hypothyroidism during pregnancy may adversely affect maternal and fetal outcomes. These adverse outcomes include increased incidences of spontaneous miscarriage, preterm delivery, preeclampsia, maternal hypertension, postpartum hemorrhage, low birth weight and stillbirth, and impaired intellectual and psychomotor development of the fetus.

Women with positive TPOAb may have an increased risk for first trimester miscarriage, preterm delivery, and for offspring with impaired cognitive development.

It is important to have normal thyroid function prior to conceiving.

Requirements of thyroid hormone increase during pregnancy.

When a woman with hypothyroidism becomes pregnant, the dosage of L-thyroxine should be increased as soon as possible.

"Treatment with L-thyroxine should be considered in women of childbearing age with normal serum TSH levels when they are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, including assisted reproduction in the immediate future, if they have or have had positive levels of serum TPOAb, particularly when there is a history of miscarriage or past history of hypothyroidism."

"Women of childbearing age who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, including assisted reproduction in the immediate future, should be treated with L-thyroxine if they have or have had positive levels of serum TPOAb and their TSH is greater than 2.5 mIU/L."

________________

It would be important to be evaluated for Endocrine cause of obesity.

Did you know that several endocrine abnormalities, including Hypothyroidism, Cushings, Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), Subclinical Hypothyroidism are considered as causative factors of obesity?

Prevalence in obesity of Cushings 1%, metabolic syndrome 40%, PCOS 12%, Hypothyroidism 5%, Hashimoto's thyroiditis 11%.

Read more from the original source:
Endocrinology Center of New Jersey, Dr Svetlana Shifrin ...

knowledge center home stem cell research all about stem cells what are stem cells?

Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types. Commonly, stem cells come from two main sources:

Both types are generally characterized by their potency, or potential to differentiate into different cell types (such as skin, muscle, bone, etc.).

Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the liver. They remain in a quiescent or non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.

Adult stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire original organ. It is generally thought that adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin, but there is some evidence to suggest that they can differentiate to become other cell types.

Embryonic stem cells are derived from a four- or five-day-old human embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras that have been created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube, but only one is implanted into a woman.

Sexual reproduction begins when a male's sperm fertilizes a female's ovum (egg) to form a single cell called a zygote. The single zygote cell then begins a series of divisions, forming 2, 4, 8, 16 cells, etc. After four to six days - before implantation in the uterus - this mass of cells is called a blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer cell mass (trophoblast). The outer cell mass becomes part of the placenta, and the inner cell mass is the group of cells that will differentiate to become all the structures of an adult organism. This latter mass is the source of embryonic stem cells - totipotent cells (cells with total potential to develop into any cell in the body).

In a normal pregnancy, the blastocyst stage continues until implantation of the embryo in the uterus, at which point the embryo is referred to as a fetus. This usually occurs by the end of the 10th week of gestation after all major organs of the body have been created.

However, when extracting embryonic stem cells, the blastocyst stage signals when to isolate stem cells by placing the "inner cell mass" of the blastocyst into a culture dish containing a nutrient-rich broth. Lacking the necessary stimulation to differentiate, they begin to divide and replicate while maintaining their ability to become any cell type in the human body. Eventually, these undifferentiated cells can be stimulated to create specialized cells.

Stem cells are either extracted from adult tissue or from a dividing zygote in a culture dish. Once extracted, scientists place the cells in a controlled culture that prohibits them from further specializing or differentiating but usually allows them to divide and replicate. The process of growing large numbers of embryonic stem cells has been easier than growing large numbers of adult stem cells, but progress is being made for both cell types.

Once stem cells have been allowed to divide and propagate in a controlled culture, the collection of healthy, dividing, and undifferentiated cells is called a stem cell line. These stem cell lines are subsequently managed and shared among researchers. Once under control, the stem cells can be stimulated to specialize as directed by a researcher - a process known as directed differentiation. Embryonic stem cells are able to differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells.

Stem cells are categorized by their potential to differentiate into other types of cells. Embryonic stem cells are the most potent since they must become every type of cell in the body. The full classification includes:

Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they do not have the ability to become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.

A video on how stem cells work and develop.

Although there is not complete agreement among scientists of how to identify stem cells, most tests are based on making sure that stem cells are undifferentiated and capable of self-renewal. Tests are often conducted in the laboratory to check for these properties.

One way to identify stem cells in a lab, and the standard procedure for testing bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), is by transplanting one cell to save an individual without HSCs. If the stem cell produces new blood and immune cells, it demonstrates its potency.

Clonogenic assays (a laboratory procedure) can also be employed in vitro to test whether single cells can differentiate and self-renew. Researchers may also inspect cells under a microscope to see if they are healthy and undifferentiated or they may examine chromosomes.

To test whether human embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, scientists allow the cells to differentiate spontaneously in cell culture, manipulate the cells so they will differentiate to form specific cell types, or inject the cells into an immunosuppressed mouse to test for the formation of a teratoma (a benign tumor containing a mixture of differentiated cells).

Scientists and researchers are interested in stem cells for several reasons. Although stem cells do not serve any one function, many have the capacity to serve any function after they are instructed to specialize. Every cell in the body, for example, is derived from first few stem cells formed in the early stages of embryological development. Therefore, stem cells extracted from embryos can be induced to become any desired cell type. This property makes stem cells powerful enough to regenerate damaged tissue under the right conditions.

Tissue regeneration is probably the most important possible application of stem cell research. Currently, organs must be donated and transplanted, but the demand for organs far exceeds supply. Stem cells could potentially be used to grow a particular type of tissue or organ if directed to differentiate in a certain way. Stem cells that lie just beneath the skin, for example, have been used to engineer new skin tissue that can be grafted on to burn victims.

A team of researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital reported in PNAS Early Edition (July 2013 issue) that they were able to create blood vessels in laboratory mice using human stem cells.

The scientists extracted vascular precursor cells derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells from one group of adults with type 1 diabetes as well as from another group of healthy adults. They were then implanted onto the surface of the brains of the mice.

Within two weeks of implanting the stem cells, networks of blood-perfused vessels had been formed - they lasted for 280 days. These new blood vessels were as good as the adjacent natural ones.

The authors explained that using stem cells to repair or regenerate blood vessels could eventually help treat human patients with cardiovascular and vascular diseases.

Additionally, replacement cells and tissues may be used to treat brain disease such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's by replenishing damaged tissue, bringing back the specialized brain cells that keep unneeded muscles from moving. Embryonic stem cells have recently been directed to differentiate into these types of cells, and so treatments are promising.

Healthy heart cells developed in a laboratory may one day be transplanted into patients with heart disease, repopulating the heart with healthy tissue. Similarly, people with type I diabetes may receive pancreatic cells to replace the insulin-producing cells that have been lost or destroyed by the patient's own immune system. The only current therapy is a pancreatic transplant, and it is unlikely to occur due to a small supply of pancreases available for transplant.

Adult hematopoietic stem cells found in blood and bone marrow have been used for years to treat diseases such as leukemia, sickle cell anemia, and other immunodeficiencies. These cells are capable of producing all blood cell types, such as red blood cells that carry oxygen to white blood cells that fight disease. Difficulties arise in the extraction of these cells through the use of invasive bone marrow transplants. However hematopoietic stem cells have also been found in the umbilical cord and placenta. This has led some scientists to call for an umbilical cord blood bank to make these powerful cells more easily obtainable and to decrease the chances of a body's rejecting therapy.

Another reason why stem cell research is being pursued is to develop new drugs. Scientists could measure a drug's effect on healthy, normal tissue by testing the drug on tissue grown from stem cells rather than testing the drug on human volunteers.

The debates surrounding stem cell research primarily are driven by methods concerning embryonic stem cell research. It was only in 1998 that researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison extracted the first human embryonic stem cells that were able to be kept alive in the laboratory. The main critique of this research is that it required the destruction of a human blastocyst. That is, a fertilized egg was not given the chance to develop into a fully-developed human.

The core of this debate - similar to debates about abortion, for example - centers on the question, "When does life begin?" Many assert that life begins at conception, when the egg is fertilized. It is often argued that the embryo deserves the same status as any other full grown human. Therefore, destroying it (removing the blastocyst to extract stem cells) is akin to murder. Others, in contrast, have identified different points in gestational development that mark the beginning of life - after the development of certain organs or after a certain time period.

People also take issue with the creation of chimeras. A chimera is an organism that has both human and animal cells or tissues. Often in stem cell research, human cells are inserted into animals (like mice or rats) and allowed to develop. This creates the opportunity for researchers to see what happens when stem cells are implanted. Many people, however, object to the creation of an organism that is "part human".

The stem cell debate has risen to the highest level of courts in several countries. Production of embryonic stem cell lines is illegal in Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, and Ireland, but permitted in Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. In the United States, it is not illegal to work with or create embryonic stem cell lines. However, the debate in the US is about funding, and it is in fact illegal for federal funds to be used to research stem cell lines that were created after August 2001.

Medical News Today is a leading resource for the latest headlines on stem cell research. So, check out our stem cell research news section. You can also sign up to our weekly or daily newsletters to ensure that you stay up-to-date with the latest news.

This stem cells information section was written by Peter Crosta for Medical News Today in September 2008 and was last updated on 19 July 2013. The contents may not be re-produced in any way without the permission of Medical News Today.

Disclaimer: This informational section on Medical News Today is regularly reviewed and updated, and provided for general information purposes only. The materials contained within this guide do not constitute medical or pharmaceutical advice, which should be sought from qualified medical and pharmaceutical advisers.

Please note that although you may feel free to cite and quote this article, it may not be re-produced in full without the permission of Medical News Today. For further details, please view our full terms of use

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The need for the discovery and development of innovative technologies to improve the delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents in the body is widely recognized. The next generation therapies must be able to deliver drugs, therapeutic proteins and recombinant DNA to focal areas of disease or to tumors to maximize clinical benefit while limiting untoward side effects. The use of nanoscale technologies to design novel drug delivery systems and devices is a rapidly developing area of biomedical research that promises breakthrough advances in therapeutics and diagnostics.

Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine (CDDN) serves to unify existing diverse technical and scientific expertise in biomedical and material science research at the University of Nebraska thereby creating a world class interdisciplinary drug delivery and nanomedicine program. This is realized by integrating established expertise in drug delivery, gene therapy, neuroscience, pathology, immunology, pharmacology, vaccine therapy, cancer biology, polymer science and nanotechnology at the University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC), the University of Nebraska at Lincoln (UNL) and Creighton University.

CDDNs vision is to improve health by enhancing the efficacy and safety of new and existing therapeutic agents, diagnostic agents and genes through the discovery and application of innovative methods of drug delivery and nanotechnology. CDDNs mission is to discover and apply knowledge to design, develop and evaluate novel approaches to improve the delivery of therapeutic agents, diagnostic agents and genes.

The COBRE Nebraska Center for Nanomedicine is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Science(NIGMS) grant 2P20 GM103480-07.

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Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine (CDDN)

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A collection of biomedical books that can be searched directly or from linked data in other NCBI databases. The collection includes biomedical textbooks, other scientific titles, genetic resources such as GeneReviews, and NCBI help manuals.

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An archive and distribution center for the description and results of studies which investigate the interaction of genotype and phenotype. These studies include genome-wide association (GWAS), medical resequencing, molecular diagnostic assays, as well as association between genotype and non-clinical traits.

An open, publicly accessible platform where the HLA community can submit, edit, view, and exchange data related to the human major histocompatibility complex. It consists of an interactive Alignment Viewer for HLA and related genes, an MHC microsatellite database, a sequence interpretation site for Sequencing Based Typing (SBT), and a Primer/Probe database.

A searchable database of genes, focusing on genomes that have been completely sequenced and that have an active research community to contribute gene-specific data. Information includes nomenclature, chromosomal localization, gene products and their attributes (e.g., protein interactions), associated markers, phenotypes, interactions, and links to citations, sequences, variation details, maps, expression reports, homologs, protein domain content, and external databases.

A collection of expert-authored, peer-reviewed disease descriptions on the NCBI Bookshelf that apply genetic testing to the diagnosis, management, and genetic counseling of patients and families with specific inherited conditions.

Summaries of information for selected genetic disorders with discussions of the underlying mutation(s) and clinical features, as well as links to related databases and organizations.

A voluntary registry of genetic tests and laboratories, with detailed information about the tests such as what is measured and analytic and clinical validity. GTR also is a nexus for information about genetic conditions and provides context-specific links to a variety of resources, including practice guidelines, published literature, and genetic data/information. The initial scope of GTR includes single gene tests for Mendelian disorders, as well as arrays, panels and pharmacogenetic tests.

A database of known interactions of HIV-1 proteins with proteins from human hosts. It provides annotated bibliographies of published reports of protein interactions, with links to the corresponding PubMed records and sequence data.

A compilation of data from the NIAID Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and GenBank. It provides tools for flu sequence analysis, annotation and submission to GenBank. This resource also has links to other flu sequence resources, and publications and general information about flu viruses.

A portal to information about medical genetics. MedGen includes term lists from multiple sources and organizes them into concept groupings and hierarchies. Links are also provided to information related to those concepts in the NIH Genetic Testing Registry (GTR), ClinVar,Gene, OMIM, PubMed, and other sources.

A database of human genes and genetic disorders. NCBI maintains current content and continues to support its searching and integration with other NCBI databases. However, OMIM now has a new home at omim.org, and users are directed to this site for full record displays.

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The medical genetics of Jews is the study, screening, and treatment of genetic disorders more common in particular Jewish populations than in the population as a whole.[1] The genetics of Ashkenazi Jews have been particularly well-studied, resulting in the discovery of many genetic disorders associated with this ethnic group. In contrast, the medical genetics of Sephardic Jews and Mizrahi Jews are more complicated, since they are more genetically diverse and consequently no genetic disorders are more common in these groups as a whole; instead, they tend to have the genetic diseases common in their various countries of origin.[1][2] Several organizations, such as Dor Yeshorim,[3] offer screening for Ashkenazi genetic diseases, and these screening programs have had a significant impact, in particular by reducing the number of cases of TaySachs disease.[4]

Different ethnic groups tend to suffer from different rates of hereditary diseases, with some being more common, and some less common. Hereditary diseases, particularly hemophilia, were recognized early in Jewish history, even being described in the Talmud.[5] However, the scientific study of hereditary disease in Jewish populations was initially hindered by scientific racism, which believed in racial supremacism.[6][7]

However, modern studies on the genetics of particular ethnic groups have the tightly defined purpose of avoiding the birth of children with genetic diseases, or identifying people at particular risk of developing a disease in the future.[6] Consequently, the Jewish community has been very supportive of modern genetic testing programs, although this unusually high degree of cooperation has raised concerns that it might lead to the false perception that Jews are more susceptible to genetic diseases than other groups of people.[5]

However, most populations contain hundreds of alleles that could potentially cause disease and most people are heterozygotes for one or two recessive alleles that would be lethal in a homozygote.[8] Although the overall frequency of disease-causing alleles does not vary much between populations, the practice of consanguineous marriage (marriage between second cousins or closer relatives) is common in some Jewish communities, which produces a small increase in the number of children with congenital defects.[9]

According to Daphna Birenbaum Carmeli at the University of Haifa, Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations because:[10]

The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Carmeli writes, "Jews are over-represented in human genetic literature, particularly in mutation-related contexts."[10] Another factor that may aid genetic research in this community is that Jewish culture results in excellent medical care, which is coupled to a strong interest in the community's history and demography.[11]

This set of advantages have led to Ashkenazi Jews in particular being used in many genetic studies, not just in the study of genetic diseases. For example, a series of publications on Ashkenazi centenarians established their longevity was strongly inherited and associated with lower rates of age-related diseases.[12] This "healthy aging" phenotype may be due to higher levels of telomerase in these individuals.[13]

The most detailed genetic analysis study of Ashkenazi was published in September 2014 by Shai Carmon and his team at Columbia University. The results of the detailed study show that today's 10 million Ashkenai Jews descend from a population only 350 individuals who lived about 600-800 years ago. That population derived from both Europe and the Middle East. [14]There is evidence that the population bottleneck may have allowed deleterious alleles to become more prevalent in the population due to genetic drift.[15] As a result, this group has been particularly intensively studied, so many mutations have been identified as common in Ashkenazis.[16] Of these diseases, many also occur in other Jewish groups and in non-Jewish populations, although the specific mutation which causes the disease may vary between populations. For example, two different mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene causes Gaucher's disease in Ashkenazis, which is their most common genetic disease, but only one of these mutations is found in non-Jewish groups.[4] A few diseases are unique to this group; for example, familial dysautonomia is almost unknown in other populations.[4]

TaySachs disease, a fatal illness of children that causes mental deterioration prior to death, was historically more prevalent among Ashkenazi Jews,[18] although high levels of the disease are also found in some Pennsylvania Dutch, southern Louisiana Cajun, and eastern Quebec French Canadian populations.[19] Since the 1970s, however, proactive genetic testing has been quite effective in eliminating TaySachs from the Ashkenazi Jewish population.[20]

Gaucher's disease, in which lipids accumulate in inappropriate locations, occurs most frequently among Ashkenazi Jews;[21] the mutation is carried by roughly one in every 15 Ashkenazi Jews, compared to one in 100 of the general American population.[22] Gaucher's disease can cause brain damage and seizures, but these effects are not usually present in the form manifested among Ashkenazi Jews; while sufferers still bruise easily, and it can still potentially rupture the spleen, it generally has only a minor impact on life expectancy.

Ashkenazi Jews are also highly affected by other lysosomal storage diseases, particularly in the form of lipid storage disorders. Compared to other ethnic groups, they more frequently act as carriers of mucolipidosis[23] and NiemannPick disease,[24] the latter of which can prove fatal.

The occurrence of several lysosomal storage disorders in the same population suggests the alleles responsible might have conferred some selective advantage in the past.[25] This would be similar to the hemoglobin allele which is responsible for sickle-cell disease, but solely in people with two copies; those with just one copy of the allele have a sickle cell trait and gain partial immunity to malaria as a result. This effect is called heterozygote advantage.[26]

Some of these disorders may have become common in this population due to selection for high levels of intelligence (see Ashkenazi intelligence).[27][28] However, other research suggests no difference is found between the frequency of this group of diseases and other genetic diseases in Ashkenazis, which is evidence against any specific selectivity towards lysosomal disorders.[29]

Familial dysautonomia (RileyDay syndrome), which causes vomiting, speech problems, an inability to cry, and false sensory perception, is almost exclusive to Ashkenazi Jews;[30] Ashkenazi Jews are almost 100 times more likely to carry the disease than anyone else.[31]

Diseases inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern often occur in endogamous populations. Among Ashkenazi Jews, a higher incidence of specific genetic disorders and hereditary diseases have been verified, including:

In contrast to the Ashkenazi population, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews are much more divergent groups, with ancestors from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Italy, Libya, the Balkans, Iran, Iraq, India, and Yemen, with specific genetic disorders found in each regional group, or even in specific subpopulations in these regions.[1]

One of the first genetic testing programs to identify heterozygote carriers of a genetic disorder was a program aimed at eliminating TaySachs disease. This program began in 1970, and over one million people have now been screened for the mutation.[46] Identifying carriers and counseling couples on reproductive options have had a large impact on the incidence of the disease, with a decrease from 4050 per year worldwide to only four or five per year.[4] Screening programs now test for several genetic disorders in Jews, although these focus on the Ashkenazi Jews, since other Jewish groups cannot be given a single set of tests for a common set of disorders.[2] In the USA, these screening programs have been widely accepted by the Ashkenazi community, and have greatly reduced the frequency of the disorders.[47]

Prenatal testing for several genetic diseases is offered as commercial panels for Ashkenazi couples by both CIGNA and Quest Diagnostics. The CIGNA panel is available for testing for parental/preconception screening or following chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia, Gaucher disease, mucolipidosis IV, Neimann-Pick disease type A, Tay-Sachs disease, and torsion dystonia. The Quest panel is for parental/preconception testing and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia group C, Gaucher disease, Neimann-Pick disease types A and B and Tay-Sachs disease.

The official recommendations of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is that Ashkenazi individuals be offered screening for Tay Sachs, Canavan, cystic fibrosis, and familial dysautonomia as part of routine obstetrical care.[48]

In the orthodox community, an organization called Dor Yeshorim carries out anonymous genetic screening of couples before marriage to reduce the risk of children with genetic diseases being born.[49] The program educates young people on medical genetics and screens school-aged children for any disease genes. These results are then entered into an anonymous database, identified only by a unique ID number given to the person who was tested. If two people are considering getting married, they call the organization and tell them their ID numbers. The organization then tells them if they are genetically compatible. It is not divulged if one member is a carrier, so as to protect the carrier and his or her family from stigmatization.[49] However, this program has been criticized for exerting social pressure on people to be tested, and for screening for a broad range of recessive genes, including disorders such as Gaucher's disease.[3]

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Medical genetics of Jews - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gregor Johann Mendel (20 July 1822[1] 6 January 1884) was a German-speaking Moravian[2] scientist and Augustinian friar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the modern science of genetics. Though farmers had known for centuries that crossbreeding of animals and plants could favor certain desirable traits, Mendel's pea plant experiments conducted between 1856 and 1863 established many of the rules of heredity, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance.

Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color. With seed color, he showed that when a yellow pea and a green pea were bred together their offspring plant was always yellow. However, in the next generation of plants, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1:3. To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms recessive and dominant in reference to certain traits. (In the preceding example, green peas are recessive and yellow peas are dominant.) He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible factorsnow called genesin providing for visible traits in predictable ways.

The profound significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century (more than three decades later) with the independent rediscovery of these laws.[3]Erich von Tschermak, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and William Jasper Spillman independently verified several of Mendel's experimental findings, ushering in the modern age of genetics.

Johann Mendel was born into an ethnic German family in Heinzendorf bei Odrau, Moravian-Silesian border, Austrian Empire (now Hynice, Czech Republic). He was the son of Anton and Rosine (Schwirtlich) Mendel, and had one older sister, Veronika, and one younger, Theresia. They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years.[4] During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping. Later, as a young man, he attended gymnasium in Opava. He had to take four months off during his gymnasium studies due to illness. From 1840 to 1843, he studied practical and theoretical philosophy and physics at the University of Olomouc Faculty of Philosophy, taking another year off because of illness. He also struggled financially to pay for his studies, and Theresia gave him her dowry. Later he helped support her three sons, two of whom became doctors.

He became a friar because it enabled him to obtain an education without having to pay for it himself. He was given the name Gregor when he joined the Augustinian friars.)

When Mendel entered the Faculty of Philosophy, the Department of Natural History and Agriculture was headed by Johann Karl Nestler who conducted extensive research of hereditary traits of plants and animals, especially sheep. Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz,[7] Mendel entered the Augustinian St Thomas's Abbey and began his training as a priest. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering religious life. Mendel worked as a substitute high school teacher. In 1850 he failed the oral part, the last of three parts, of his exams to become a certified high school teacher. In 1851 he was sent to the University of Vienna to study under the sponsorship of Abbot C. F. Napp so that he could get more formal education. At Vienna, his professor of physics was Christian Doppler.[9] Mendel returned to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics. In 1856 he took the exam to become a certified teacher and again failed the oral part.In 1867 he replaced Napp as abbot of the monastery.[10]

After he was elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended, as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions.[11] Mendel died on 6 January 1884, at the age of 61, in Brno, Moravia, Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic), from chronic nephritis. Czech composer Leo Janek played the organ at his funeral. After his death, the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's collection, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation.[12]

Gregor Mendel, who is known as the "father of modern genetics", was inspired by both his professors at the University of Olomouc (Friedrich Franz and Johann Karl Nestler) and his colleagues at the monastery (such as Franz Diebl) to study variation in plants. In 1854 Napp authorized Mendel for the investigation, who conducted his study in the monastery's 2 hectares (4.9 acres) experimental garden,[13] which was originally planted by Napp in 1830.[10] Unlike Nestler, who studied hereditary traits in sheep, Mendel focused on plants. After initial experiments with pea plants, Mendel settled on studying seven traits that seemed to inherit independently of other traits: seed shape, flower color, seed coat tint, pod shape, unripe pod color, flower location, and plant height. He first focused on seed shape, which was either angular or round. Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (Pisum sativum). This study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later came to be known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.

Mendel presented his paper, Versuche ber Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments on Plant Hybridization), at two meetings of the Natural History Society of Brno in Moravia on 8 February and 8 March 1865. It was received favorably and generated reports in several local newspapers.[16] When Mendel's paper was published in 1866 in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins Brnn,[17] it was seen as essentially about hybridization rather than inheritance and had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years. His paper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work.[18] Notably, Charles Darwin was unaware of Mendel's paper, and is envisaged that if he had, genetics would have been a much older science.[19][20]

Mendel began his studies on heredity using mice. He was at St. Thomas's Abbey but his bishop did not like one of his friars studying animal sex, so Mendel switched to plants. Mendel also bred bees in a bee house that was built for him, using bee hives that he designed.[22] He also studied astronomy and meteorology,[10] founding the 'Austrian Meteorological Society' in 1865.[9] The majority of his published works were related to meteorology.[9]

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This article is about the organ. For the human eye, see Human eye.

Eyes are the organs of vision. They detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.[1] Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods.[2]

The simplest "eyes", such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms.[3] From more complex eyes, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells send signals along the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment and to the pretectal nuclei to control the pupillary light reflex.

Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours. The visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which have monocular vision.

The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago about the time of the Cambrian explosion.[4] The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, and more advanced eyes have evolved in 96% of animal species in six of the ~35[a] main phyla.[1] In most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for colour) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals for vision. The visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focusing lens and often an iris; the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the size of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,[5] and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.[6] The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lenssimilar to how a camera focuses.[7]

Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360 field of vision. Compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have compound eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images.

Possessing detailed hyperspectral colour vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the world's most complex colour vision system.[8]Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however: some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye.

In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually "see" in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells. They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra-red light produced by the hot ventsin this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.[9]

Photoreception is phylogenetically very old, with various theories of phylogenesis.[10] The common origin (monophyly) of all animal eyes is now widely accepted as fact. This is based upon the shared genetic features of all eyes; that is, all modern eyes, varied as they are, have their origins in a proto-eye believed to have evolved some 540 million years ago,[11][12][13] and the PAX6 gene is considered a key factor in this. The majority of the advancements in early eyes are believed to have taken only a few million years to develop, since the first predator to gain true imaging would have touched off an "arms race" [14] among all species that did not flee the photopic environment. Prey animals and competing predators alike would be at a distinct disadvantage without such capabilities and would be less likely to survive and reproduce. Hence multiple eye types and subtypes developed in parallel (except those of groups, such as the vertebrates, that were only forced into the photopic environment at a late stage).

Eyes in various animals show adaptation to their requirements. For example, the eye of a bird of prey has much greater visual acuity than a human eye, and in some cases can detect ultraviolet radiation. The different forms of eye in, for example, vertebrates and molluscs are examples of parallel evolution, despite their distant common ancestry. Phenotypic convergence of the geometry of cephalopod and most vertebrate eyes creates the impression that the vertebrate eye evolved from an imaging cephalopod eye, but this is not the case, as the reversed roles of their respective ciliary and rhabdomeric opsin classes[15] and different lens crystallins show.[16]

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