StemCell Therapy

HIV and Aids care short learning programme (32 credits)

Programme framework:

Assessment:

Two scheduled tests and one practical examination in counselling. In order to pass the short course, a final mark of 50% is needed. The mark will be constituted in the following manner: Test 1 + Test 2 + Practical exam 3 = mark (50%)

Format of presentation:

On registration students will receive a CD containing:

Please note that students have to come prepared to classes, since discussions on content will be initiated by students and no lectures will be given on any content. Students will be given the opportunity to clarify any content problems they may experience with the lecturer during classes.

Who will benefit from completing the short course?

All health and non-health personnel who are interested in making a change in the lives of HIV/AIDS infected and affected persons.

For more information about this programme, and other short learning programmes please contact:

Mrs Diane Keegan Assistant Director: Short Learning Programmes School of Nursing University of the Free State Tel: +27(0)51 401 3629 / 2914 Fax: +27(0)51 401 3282 E-mail: KeeganD@ufs.ac.za

Last updated: 12 October 2014 20:04

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HIV and Aids Care (Short Learning Programme)

What are drug delivery systems? Lectroject is an iontophoretic drug delivery (Particle Transport) system that takes existing medication into the cell where it does its work by interfering with the DNA of the virus to prevent it from replicating and spreading. (In theory it quarantines the viruses). Drugs have long been used to improve health and extend lives. The practice of drug delivery has changed dramatically in the last few decades, with focus to increase drug safety and efficacy. Particle Transport Technology Lectroject drug delivery technology is far more effective than oral or injected medication as it is not subject to gastric or hepatic degradation. Iontophoresis (Iontophoretic drug delivery) has been used in the USA for many years and is an accepted form of therapy. If you look up "iontophoresis" and "transdermal drug delivery devices" on the internet you'll find that not only Lectroject but all such machines are effective. See what out satisfied patient say Mode Of Action When Acyclovir is induced with Lectrojects drug delivery system, it gets taken up by herpes-infected cells and metabolized in the presence of guanylate and thymedine kinase; it gets changed a bit and becomes a powerful drug. Once metabolized, it blocks the infecting Herpes virus from replicating its DNA, keeping it from producing more of the virus. Acyclovir is a drug primarily used to treat people infected with Herpes Simplex virus (HSV). It has also been used for the treatment of chickenpox, patients infected with Epstein-Barr virus and to prevent cytomegalovirus infections. Its been available to use for quite some time and often works well to treat people with HSV infections like genital herpes, herpes labialis (cold sores) or shingles (caused by another herpesvirus, Herpes zoster) and some other viral diseases.

See more here:
Lectroject Transdermal Drug Delivery | Herpes Treatment

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Say hello to Mother Nature and her health-powering foods

By Gary Heiting, OD

Protecting your eyesight is one of the most important things you can do to help maintain your quality of life. Some type of sight-threatening eye problem affects one in six adults age 45 and older. And the risk for vision loss only increases with age.

In fact, a recent American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) report estimates that more than 43 million Americans will develop age-related eye diseases by 2020. Since the leading causes of blindness and low vision in the United States are primarily age-related diseases such as macular degeneration, cataract, diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma, protecting your eyesight as you age is an essential part of your health care.

To protect your eyesight and keep your eyes healthy as you age, consider these simple guidelines:

Studies also have shown that eating fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids may reduce your risk of developing macular degeneration. Also, consider supplementing your diet with eye vitamins to make sure you are getting adequate amounts of the nutrients you need to keep your eyes healthy.

In addition to following these guidelines, be sure to wear safety glasses when working with tools or participating in active sports to help prevent eye injuries that potentially could cause permanent vision loss.

It's true that following these steps is no guarantee of perfect vision throughout your lifetime. But maintaining a healthy lifestyle and having regular eye exams will certainly decrease your risk of developing a sight-stealing eye problem that otherwise might have been prevented.

Back to top

About the Author: Gary Heiting, OD, is senior editor of AllAboutVision.com. Dr. Heiting has more than 25 years of experience as an eye care provider, health educator and consultant to the eyewear industry. His special interests include contact lenses, nutrition and preventive vision care. Connect with Dr. Heiting via Google+.

[Page updated February 2016]

Read more:
Eight Ways to Protect Your Eyesight - AllAboutVision.com

Track-1: Industrial Biotechnology

Industrial biotechnology is one of the best encouraging new techniques to contamination evasion, asset protection, and cost lessening. It is much of the time said to as the third wave in biotechnology. On the off chance that created to its full forthcoming, mechanical biotechnology might have a higher impact on the World than human services and agrarian biotechnology. Mechanical biotechnology has molded proteins for use in our everyday lives and for the assembling division. Modern biotechnology organizations use numerous particular strategies to find and enhance nature's chemicals. Data from genomic concentrates on microorganisms is supporting specialists misuse on the abundance of hereditary differing qualities in microbial group.

Modern Biotechnology is a Multidisciplinary plan proposed to experience plant based biomass for the assembling of vitality and mass and claim to fame chemicals. "Open Innovation Cluster" for bioeconomy with consideration on mechanical biotechnology. It is anticipated that mechanical biotechnology will be continuously actualized by compound, pharmaceutical, sustenance, and farming commercial ventures.

The Global biotechnology market size was esteemed at USD 270.5 billion in 2013 and is required to develop at a CAGR of 12.3% inferable from the expanding interest for diagnostics and therapeutics arrangements. Rising government activities attributable to high importance towards development of the economy are relied upon to help the biotechnology market development over the gauge period.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-2: Bioprocess engineering

Bioprocess building is the adjustment or utilization of renewable constituents to create esteem included yields. It incorporates revelation, exploration, advance and the assembling and improvement of items. Bioprocess/biochemical/biotechnology/biotechnical building is a bureau of synthetic building, It decreases by the outline and development of types of gear and methods for the assembling of items, for example, agribusiness, nourishment, bolster, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, chemicals, polymers then paper from living materials and examination of waste water.

Bioprocess Engineering, research accentuations on expansion of new biotechnological rehearses for creation of pharmaceuticals, solid nourishment components, mass chemicals and biofuels. Our experience is to create high esteem bio-based items in a legitimate and modest mode to stop decrease of regular assets and to expansion advancement of a bio-experimental industry.

Worldwide business sector for bioprocessing is reflecting the sensational development of the biotechnology business around the globe. Europe speaks to around 25% of Global business sector with 1,880 organizations with incomes roughly $13.5 billion.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-3: Industrial Fermentation

Fermentation process devours microorganisms to change strong or fluid substrates into different items. Aging determined items show gigantic quality. Mechanical aging is the planned utilization of maturation by organisms, for example, microbes other than growths to style items valuable to people. Matured items require order as sustenance and additionally in far reaching industry.

Some important chemicals, identical as acidic corrosive, citrus extract, in addition to ethanol are readied by aging. The proportion of aging relies on upon the compacting of organisms, cells, cell sections, and proteins furthermore temperature, pH and now vigorous aging Oxygen. Item recovery as often as possible embroils the assimilation of the weaken arrangement. Around all industrially fabricated catalysts, for example, lipase, invertase then rennet, are readied by maturation through hereditarily adjusted MI Fermentation process devours microorganisms to change strong or fluid substrates into different items. Aging inferred items show colossal quality. Mechanical aging is the purposeful utilization of aging by organisms, for example, microorganisms other than parasites to style items valuable to people. Aged items require demand as sustenance and in addition in far reaching industry.

Some significant chemicals, comparable as acidic corrosive, citrus extract, in addition to ethanol are readied by aging. The proportion of aging relies on upon the compacting of microorganisms, cells, cell sections, and compounds furthermore temperature, pH and now high-impact maturation Oxygen. Item recovery much of the time involves the ingestion of the weaken arrangement. Roughly all economically produced compounds, for example, lipase, invertase then rennet, are readied by aging through hereditarily altered microorganisms. In by and large, maturations can be separated into three sorts: Production of biomass, Production of extracellular metabolites, and Transformation of substrate.

Worldwide maturation chemicals market interest was 51.83 million tons in 2013. Expanding worldwide ethanol and methanol creation levels because of developing interest from liquor industry is likewise anticipated that would drive aging chemicals market. High assembling expense is likewise anticipated that would ruin the business sector development throughout the following six years.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

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Track-4: Microbial Biotechnology

Microorganisms have stayed persecuted for their unmistakable natural and physical properties from the beginning periods for heating, preparing, nourishment safeguarding and more as of late to manufacture anti-microbials, solvents, amino acids, bolster supplements, and engineered feedstuffs. Current advancements in Molecular Biology and hereditary building may offer novel elucidation to long-standing confusions. Over the wiped out decade, analysts have added to the practices to exchange a quality starting with one creature then onto the next, taking into account advancements of how microorganisms store, copy, and exchange inherited material.

As of late, aging procedures relied on upon uncommon sorts of crude materials and on accessible strains of microorganisms. Presently microorganisms can be hereditarily adjusted to capacity all the more advantageously and to hone a comprehensive assortment of substrates. As these microorganisms are re-built and their aging capacities completely persecuted, we expediently close to the day when substances can be delivered actually and financially.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-5: Fermentation Technology

Fermentation technology consolidate a wide field, yet inside this profile we focus on the utilization of organisms and proteins for development of intensifies that discover application in the vitality, substance, material, restorative and the sustenance portion. In spite of the fact that maturation hones have been utilized for eras, the need for biological generation of vitality and materials is testing creation and change of inventive aging hypotheses. Our efforts are coordinated both to the improvement of cell organizations and chemicals and also of configuration of novel practice ideas and advances for maturation routines.

Mechanical aging systems are progressively predominant, and are measured an essential innovative advantage for dropping our reliance on chemicals and items made from fossil energizes. Be that as it may, despite the fact that their expanding acknowledgment, maturation movements have not yet broadened the comparative advancement as conventional substance methodology, mostly when it emerges to utilizing building devices, for example, numerical representation and streamlining techniques.

Maturation innovation goal is to enhance aging systems for solutions e.g. anti-toxins, drug intermediates, chemicals, amino acids and different biotransformations.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-6: Biopharmaceuticals

Biopharmaceuticals may be made from microbial cells (recombinant E. coli or yeast societies), mammalian cell lines and plant cell societies and greenery plants in bioreactors of various designs, comprehensive of photograph bioreactors. Biopharmaceuticals can contain of proteins or extra sorts of items, for example, nucleic acids, viral quality treatment vectors , peptides, lipids and sugars, alone or in mix. The prevalence of biopharmaceuticals available these days are proteins, and in this way this idea concentrates on those activities required essentially for extension of protein-based therapeutics and wont make a difference to alternate classes of biopharmaceuticals.

In the course of recent years, rich new sorts of test biologic treatment have set up business enlistment, however the presence of bio-similarities means the greatest change in the biologic endorsement scene. The Bio pharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) is not just a significant device for picking up waivers vivo bioequivalence concentrates additionally for conclusion making in the advancement and early improvement of new medicines. Measurement of solvency and penetrability in the revelation/change foundations is depicted. The experimental premise and information necessities for dossiers at adjusted phases of advancement of biopharmaceuticals will be imparted for the perfection, preclinical and clinical parts of controlling entries.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track -7: Molecular Biotechnology

Molecular biotechnology is the act of research center techniques to ponder and in addition change proteins and nucleic acids for applications in ranges for example creature wellbeing and human wellbeing, the earth and Agriculture. Atomic biotechnology results from the joining of various scopes of exploration, for example, microbiology, sub-atomic science, immunology, natural chemistry, cell science and hereditary qualities. It is an elating field driven by the capacity to exchange hereditary material between life forms with the point of comprehension noteworthy organic movements or making a significant item. The end of the human genome venture has opened an innumerable of prospects to make new medications and medicines, and techniques to enhance current pharmaceuticals. Atomic biotechnology is a quickly changing and dynamic field. As the pace of advancements quickens, its centrality will rise. The unmistakable quality and impact of atomic biotechnology is being detected the country over.

The instruments of atomic biotechnology can be connected to enhance and grow, drugs , demonstrative tests, treatments, and antibodies that will expand creature and human wellbeing. Sub-atomic biotechnology has apparatus in creature and plant farming, Forestry, and nourishment preparing, Aquaculture, concoction and material assembling. Each normal for our lives in the up and coming times will be influenced by this dynamic stadium.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-8: Biofuels and Biorefinery

Biorefining commercial ventures produce heat, fuel, power and diverse chemicals. The items are readied from biomass, for example, backwoods based materials and sustenance waste. A bio refinery is an ability that acclimatizes biomass change forms and hardware to create heat, powers, control and esteem included chemicals from biomass, generation, new methodologies are in exploration and advancements are made each day. The bio-refinery model is like today's petroleum refinery, which yield different items and fills from petroleum. Feasible financial development requires safe assets for modern assembling, as bio refineries consolidates the fundamental advancements stuck between mechanical intermediates, bio-crude materials and last items.

Improvement and Research in ahead of schedule field of biorefinery are most extreme noticeable in United States, Europe (Kamm et al. 1998, 2000) to give no less than 25% natural carbon-based mechanical feedstock chemicals, 10%liquid fills from bio-based item industry. BCC Research assesses that the overall interest for bio items will ascend at a twofold digit compound yearly development extent (CAGR) of 12.6% over the accompanying five years to reach $700.7 billion in 2018 from $387.6 billion in 2013, when it will achieve a business sector scattering rate of 5.5% in 2018, from an anticipated rate of 4.2% in 2013. Blue Marble Energy, set up in 2007, is a U.S. based organization which misuses hybridized microbial relationship to create claim to fame renewable and biochemical biogas. Their organization operation is to dislodge oil with totally renewable, carbon impartial substitutes using nature-based elucidations.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-9: Genetically Modified Organisms

Late advancements in engineered science, the enthusiasm for hereditarily altered life forms (GMOs) is exponentially expanding and their applications for existent life show up adequately unending, going from the production of drugs and immunization to their utilization in the agro-nourishment field.

Many existing sensors, named cell-based bioassays and entire cell biosensors , have been in point of interest created in light of hereditarily adjusted cells, discovering applications in a few fields, running from natural checking to nourishment control, from criminological science to medication screening.

Absolutely this stances genuine administrative concerns and embodies a nonstop test for analysts, particularly concerning the potential spreading of GMOs into the earth. This GMO "duality" speaks to a captivating element and this Research Topic is planned to bear the cost of the analysts a look in this interesting field.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-10: Cell Culture

Cell society alludes to the expulsion of cells from a creature or plant and their consequent development in an ideal fake environment. The cells might be expelled from the tissue straightforwardly and disaggregated by enzymatic or mechanical means before development, or they might be gotten from a cell line or cell strain that has as of now been set up.

Critical development inside of the biopharmaceuticals business is impelling phenomenal advancement and interest for cell society items for the reasons of medication revelation and wellbeing testing. While 2D cell societies have been in research facility use following the 1950s, the business sector for 3D societies, which all the more precisely model human tissue in vivo without using creature test subjects, has seen fantastic development over the previous decade. Without a doubt, this business sector is ready to experience hazardous development inside of the figure period, and additionally make ripe ground for combinations, mergers, and acquisitions for some sorts and sizes of organizations.

Powered by poisonous quality testing and expanded biopharmaceutical creation, the test packs class is the speediest moving fragment of the general business sector, moving at a colossal 42% CAGR. Request here is driven by the way that test units contain all the important reagents and particular conventions bundled for research center use.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-11: Biomaterials

In the cutting edge society, because of advancements in innovation and industry, there are expanding instances of defunctionalisation or harm to tissues or organs from different mishaps, sicknesses, and maturing, and as the human body achieves its breaking points in self-recovery capacity, the requirement for appropriate and viable treatment strategies is expanding quickly. In like manner, studies on biomaterials valuable in tissue recovery are effectively being directed to outline materials that can actuate the recovery of the harmed tissue or organ. Examination is likewise right now being done on undifferentiated cell separation inside of platforms and instruments of the tissue recovery on transplant to the human body and endeavors on the improvement and use of its remedial system. Be that as it may, it is exceptionally hard to shape three-dimensional fake organ like the fundamentally complex tissue inside of the human body because of as far as possible in the biomaterial advancement.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-12: Enzymes from Extreme Environments

Enzymes are nature's biocatalysts engaged with high synergist power and noteworthy substrate specificity. Catalysts perform an extensive variety of capacities all through nature, and guide the organic chemistry of existence with awesome exactness. The lion's share of proteins perform under conditions considered ordinary for mesophilic, neutrophilic, physical microorganisms. Notwithstanding, the Earth's biosphere contains a few districts that are amazing in examination, for example, hypersaline lakes and pools, aqueous vents, chilly seas, dry deserts and regions presented to concentrated radiation. These zones are possessed by a substantial number of extremophilic microorganisms which create compounds equipped for working in bizarre conditions.

There is an expanding biotechnological and modern interest for catalysts steady and working in cruel conditions, and over the previous decade screening for, disconnection and generation of chemicals with one of a kind and amazing properties has gotten to be one of the preeminent ranges of biotechnology examination. The improvement of cutting edge sub-atomic science apparatuses has encouraged the journey for creation of chemicals with streamlined and amazing components. These instruments incorporate expansive scale screening for potential qualities utilizing metagenomics, building of chemicals utilizing computational strategies and site-coordinated mutagenesis and atomic advancement methods.

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6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-13: Agriculture Biotechnology

Late advances in rural biotechnology have empowered the field of plant science to advance in extraordinary a wide margin. plant genomics and crop science have realized an outlook change of thought with respect to the way by which plants can be used both in agribusiness and in drug. Other than the all the more understood upgrades in agronomic attributes of harvests, for example, ailment resistance and dry spell resilience, plants can now be connected with points as different as biofuel generation, phytoremediation, the change of nourishing qualities in consumable plants, the recognizable proof of mixes for restorative purposes in plants and the utilization of plants as remedial protein creation stages. This expansion of plant science has been joined by the colossal plenitude of new licenses issued in these fields and, the same number of these developments approach business acknowledgment, the consequent increment in horticulturally based commercial enterprises. While this survey part is composed principally for plant researchers who have awesome enthusiasm for the new headings being brought regarding applications in farming biotechnology, those in different orders, for example, therapeutic specialists, ecological researchers and designers, might discover critical worth in perusing this article too.

The survey endeavors to give a review of the latest licenses issued for plant biotechnology concerning both farming and drug. The section finishes up with the suggestion that the consolidated main impetuses of environmental change, and additionally the regularly expanding requirements for clean vitality and nourishment security will assume a urgent part in driving the course for connected plant biotechnology research later on.

Related Biotechnology Conferences | Industrial Biotechnology Events | Bioeconomy Congress

Related Conferences

6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-14: Biotechnology Market

The development of Biotechnology industry according to Transparency Market Research is evaluated to watch significant development amid 2010 and 2017 as ventures from around the globe are expected to rise, particularly from rising temperate districts of the world. The report expresses that the worldwide business sector for biotechnology, concentrated on as per its application ranges, might develop at a normal yearly development rate of CAGR 11.6% from 2012 to 2017 and achieves a quality worth USD 414.5 billion before the end of 2017. This business sector was esteemed roughly USD 216.5 billion in 2011. The business sector of bio agriculture, consolidated with that of bio seeds, is anticipated to achieve a quality worth USD 27.46 billion by 2018. The field of biopharmaceuticals ruled the worldwide biotechnology advertise and represented 60% shares of it in the year 2011. Numerous biotechnological commercial ventures prospered by the innovative progressions prompting new revelations and rising requests from the pharmaceutical and farming parts.

Related Biotechnology Conferences | Industrial Biotechnology Events | Bioeconomy Congress

Related Conferences

6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-15: Global Bioeconomy

The Bioeconomy envelops the generation of renewable natural assets and their change into nourishment, bolster, bio-based items and bioenergy through creative and productive advancements gave by Industrial Biotechnology. It is now a reality and one that offers extraordinary open doors and answers for a developing number of major societal, natural and monetary difficulties, including environmental change moderation, vitality and sustenance security and asset effectiveness. The objective is a more creative and low-outflows economy, accommodating requests for maintainable farming and fisheries, nourishment security, and the reasonable utilization of renewable organic assets for modern purposes, while guaranteeing biodiversity and ecological insurance.

A definitive point of the bioeconomy is to keep Europe focused, imaginative and prosperous by giving practical, keen and comprehensive monetary development and employments, and by addressing the necessities of a developing populace whilst securing our surroundings and resources.Europe is a pioneer in the improvement of the bioeconomy, yet rivalry and enthusiasm for this field keeps on developing the world over.

Related Biotechnology Conferences | Industrial Biotechnology Events | Bioeconomy Congress

Related Conferences

6thWorld Congress onBiotechnology, October 05-07, 2016, New Delhi India; 10thAsia PacificBiotechCongress July 25-27, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; 11thEuro BiotechnologyCongress, November 07-09,2016, Alicante Spain; 12thBiotechnologyCongress, Nov 14-15, 2016, San Francisco, USA; BIO IPCC Conference, Cary, North Carolina, USA; World Congress onIndustrial Biotechnology, April 17-20, 2016, San Diego, CA; 6thBiobased Chemicals:Commercialization&Partnering, November 16-17, 2015, San Francisco, CA, USA; The European Forum forIndustrial Biotechnologyand theBioeconomy, 27-29 October 2015, Brussels, Belgium; 4thBiotechnologyWorld Congress, February 15th-18th, 2016, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; International Conference on Advances inBioprocess EngineeringandTechnology, 20th to 22nd January 2016,Kolkata, India; Global BiotechnologyCongress 2016, May 11th - 14th 2016, Boston, MA, USA

Track-16: New Biomedical device

The part of restorative gadgets in social insurance is fundamental. A restorative gadget is an instrument, contraption, insert, in vitro reagent, or comparative that is utilized to analyze, avoid, or treat sickness or different conditions. This classification incorporates news on item reviews, item wellbeing, inserts and prosthetics, new innovative improvements, automated surgery, restorative gadgets for use by therapeutic experts or patients.

Biomechanical designing is the consolidated utilization of mechanical building principals and natural information to better see how these territories cross and how they can be utilized together to possibly enhance people groups' personal satisfaction. Biomechanics research in the office centers upon mechanics at the cell, tissue, and joint level with applications in orthopedics and musculoskeletal and cardiovascular frameworks. Bioengineering offers a multi-disciplinary, cross-collaborative program that is focused on a new view of human health and disease. Biomedical Engineering (BME) is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). This field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine. Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself.

Related Biotechnology Conferences | Industrial Biotechnology Events | Bioeconomy Congress

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Often as people age, their quality of life declines with it. At HealthGAINS, were in the business of keeping you happy and healthier, despite what age you are.

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Welcome to The Sports Medicine Specialists, Canada's premier resource for Sport's Medicine services. Please feel free to browse through our website at your leisure. You will find that we have an extensive archive or Sport's Medicine articles and information that can be very helpful.

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Primary care sport & exercise Medicine fellowship journal club Director at UofT Speaking engagement: Lawrence Park CI on concussion: just the facts

Team physician for Team Canada Basketball, U-17

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Chiropractic at the Sports Medicine Specialists includes the diagnosis and treatment of conditions of the musculoskeletal system.

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Imbalances of the supporting structures of your feet can result in excessive foot motion and cause a rotation of the legs.

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The Centre For Sport & Recreation Medicine has provided exceptional service from a state of the art sports medicine clinic, operating since 2001 in College Park, Toronto, ON.

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But that means about 2.5 million Americans live with heart failure that blocks blood vessels and reduces blood supply to the body.

A new study provides an early indication that cell therapy using cells from bone marrow could one day help treat heart failure.

Researchers gave 60 patients with heart failure an injection of the therapy in the heart and compared their rates of death and heart problems to those of 66 similar patients who received a placebo injection of saltwater in the heart.

The researchers found that, during the year following the treatment, the patients who received the cell therapy had a 37% lower rate of death and hospitalization for heart failure-related problems, such as fluid buildup in the body or shortness of breath, compared with the placebo group. In the cell therapy group, 3.4% of the patients died and 51.7% were hospitalized for heart problems, whereas 13.7% of the placebo group died and 82.4% were hospitalized.

In the year after the injection, 20.3% of the patients in the cell therapy group experienced an adverse event such as infection or stroke, compared with 41.8% of the placebo group. "It was surprising that the (placebo) patients did significantly worse," Patel said. This could have been because they underwent the same invasive procedures as the treatment group, but did not receive the same potentially beneficial cell therapy, which could have anti-inflammatory effects that decreased adverse events, he said.

Nevertheless, this therapy will need to be tested on more patients, Povsic said. "Although the study in The Lancet is very encouraging, it's still a relatively small study by cardiovascular standards. In heart disease we typically study hundreds to thousands of patients," he said.

The researchers and Vericel are hoping to start a larger phase 3 clinical trial of Ixmyelocel-T that includes more heart failure patients. The new study was a phase 2 trial, and these trials generally focus on establishing the effectiveness and safety of a new therapy.

Earlier cell therapies used all the cells in the bone marrow instead of selecting for certain types of cells, and thus might have been diluting their beneficial effects, Povsic said. "We are moving more and more away from first generation cell therapy," said Povsic, who is involved in two ongoing trials looking at the effect of selected cells from bone marrow in patients with heart failure or angina, a type of heart disease that reduces blood supply to the heart.

No cell therapies have been approved worldwide for heart failure patients. There are also no approved cell therapies for other types of heart disease in the United States, but several therapies are available in Asia, including a stem cell-based treatment for people who have had a heart attack.

The therapy in the new study would be appropriate for patients who have heart failure and are getting worse, despite taking medicines such as beta blockers and ACE inhibitors, Patel said. Nearly all the patients in the study were on one of these drugs. However, the therapy would not be appropriate for patients whose heart failure is so bad that they are often hospitalized for heart complications, Patel said. These patients would be candidates for a heart transplant or left ventricular assist device.

"There's a growing population of (heart failure) patients that are on medicines and who continue to have significant symptoms," Povsic said.

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Population genetics is the study of the distribution and change in frequency of alleles within populations, and as such it sits firmly within the field of evolutionary biology. The main processes of evolution are natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and genetic recombination and they form an integral part of the theory that underpins population genetics. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, population subdivision, and population structure.

Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics.

Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, lab and field work. Computational approaches, often utilising coalescent theory, have played a central role since the 1980s.

Population genetics began as a reconciliation of Mendelian inheritance and biostatistics models. A key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change allele frequencies in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, J.B.S. Haldane worked out the mathematics of allele frequency change at a single gene locus under a broad range of conditions. Haldane also applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as the Peppered moth evolution and industrial melanism, and showed that selection coefficients could be larger than Fisher assumed, leading to more rapid adaptive evolution.[1][2]

The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in animal breeding experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks.

The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.[1][2]John Maynard Smith was Haldane's pupil, whilst W.D. Hamilton was heavily influenced by the writings of Fisher. The American George R. Price worked with both Hamilton and Maynard Smith. American Richard Lewontin and Japanese Motoo Kimura were heavily influenced by Wright.

The mathematics of population genetics were originally developed as the beginning of the modern evolutionary synthesis. According to Beatty (1986), population genetics defines the core of the modern synthesis. In the first few decades of the 20th century, most field naturalists continued to believe that Lamarckian and orthogenic mechanisms of evolution provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world. However, as the field of genetics continued to develop, those views became less tenable.[3] During the modern evolutionary synthesis, these ideas were purged, and only evolutionary causes that could be expressed in the mathematical framework of population genetics were retained.[4] Consensus was reached as to which evolutionary factors might influence evolution, but not as to the relative importance of the various factors.[4]

Theodosius Dobzhansky, a postdoctoral worker in T. H. Morgan's lab, had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by Russian geneticists such as Sergei Chetverikov. He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of microevolution developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of macroevolution observed by field biologists, with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species. Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that, contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists, these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity, with marked differences between sub-populations. The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form. Many more biologists were influenced by population genetics via Dobzhansky than were able to read the highly mathematical works in the original.[5]

Fisher and Wright had some fundamental disagreements about the relative roles of selection and drift.[6]

In Great Britain E.B. Ford, the pioneer of ecological genetics, continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic polymorphisms such as human blood types. Ford's work, in collaboration with Fisher, contributed to a shift in emphasis during the course of the modern synthesis towards natural selection over genetic drift.[1][2][7][8]

Recent studies of eukaryotic transposable elements, and of their impact on speciation, point again to a major role of nonadaptive processes such as mutation and genetic drift.[9] Mutation and genetic drift are also viewed as major factors in the evolution of genome complexity.[10]

Biston betularia f. carbonaria is the black-bodied form of the peppered moth.

Population genetics is the study of the frequency and interaction of alleles and genes in populations.[11] A sexual population is a set of organisms in which any pair of members can breed freely together. This implies that all members belong to the same species and are located near each other.[12]

For example, all of the moths of the same species living in an isolated forest are a population. A gene in this population may have several alternate forms, which account for variations between the phenotypes of the organisms. An example might be a gene for coloration in moths that has two alleles: black and white. A gene pool is the complete set of alleles for a gene in a single population; the allele frequency for an allele is the fraction of the genes in the pool that is composed of that allele (for example, what fraction of moth coloration genes are the black allele). Evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population; for example, the allele for black color in a population of moths becoming more common.

Natural selection, which includes sexual selection, is the fact that some traits make it more likely for an organism to survive and reproduce. Population genetics describes natural selection by defining fitness as a propensity or probability of survival and reproduction in a particular environment. The fitness is normally given by the symbol w=1-s where s is the selection coefficient. Natural selection acts on phenotypes, or the observable characteristics of organisms, but the genetically heritable basis of any phenotype which gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population (see allele frequency). In this way, natural selection converts differences in fitness into changes in allele frequency in a population over successive generations.

Before the advent of population genetics, many biologists doubted that small differences in fitness were sufficient to make a large difference to evolution.[5] Population geneticists addressed this concern in part by comparing selection to genetic drift. Selection can overcome genetic drift when s is greater than 1 divided by the effective population size. When this criterion is met, the probability that a new advantageous mutant becomes fixed is approximately equal to 2s.[13][14] The time until fixation of such an allele depends little on genetic drift, and is approximately proportional to log(sN)/s.[15]

Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural or sexual selection implausible. The HardyWeinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. According to this principle, the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.[16] The HardyWeinberg "equilibrium" refers to this stability of allele frequencies over time.

A second component of the HardyWeinberg principle concerns the effects of a single generation of random mating. In this case, the genotype frequencies can be predicted from the allele frequencies. For example, in the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles: the dominant allele is denoted A and the recessive a and their frequencies are denoted by p and q; freq(A)=p; freq(a)=q; p+q=1. If the genotype frequencies are in HardyWeinberg proportions resulting from random mating, then we will have freq(AA)=p2 for the AA homozygotes in the population, freq(aa)=q2 for the aa homozygotes, and freq(Aa)=2pq for the heterozygotes.

Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies caused by random sampling.[17] That is, the alleles in the offspring are a random sample of those in the parents.[18] Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success,[19] the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success.

The effect of genetic drift is larger for alleles present in few copies than when an allele is present in many copies. Scientists wage vigorous debates over the relative importance of genetic drift compared with natural selection. Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. In 1968 Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution which claims that most of the changes in the genetic material are caused by neutral mutations and genetic drift.[20] The role of genetic drift by means of sampling error in evolution has been criticized by John H Gillespie[21] and Will Provine,[22] who argue that selection on linked sites is a more important stochastic force.

The population genetics of genetic drift are described using either branching processes or a diffusion equation describing changes in allele frequency.[23] These approaches are usually applied to the Wright-Fisher and John Moran models of population genetics. Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele, after t generations in many replicated populations, starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the variance in allele frequency across those populations is

Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation in the form of new alleles. Mutation can result in several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.[25]

Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination.[26] These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years.[27] Most genes belong to larger families of homologous shared ancestry.[28] Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.[29][30] Here, protein domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties.[31] For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for the cone cell which produce color vision and one for the rod cell which produces night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene.[32] Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases redundancy; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function.[33][34] Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.[35][36]

In addition to being a major source of variation, mutation may also function as a mechanism of evolution when there are different probabilities at the molecular level for different mutations to occur, a process known as mutation bias.[37] If two genotypes, for example one with the nucleotide G and another with the nucleotide A in the same position, have the same fitness, but mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G, then genotypes with A will tend to evolve.[38] Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.[39][40] Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution.[41][42] For example, according to the phenotype-first theory of evolution, mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment.[43][44]

Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes. If selection would favor either one out of two mutations, but there is no extra advantage to having both, then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population.[45][46] Mutations leading to the loss of function of a gene are much more common than mutations that produce a new, fully functional gene. Most loss of function mutations are selected against. But when selection is weak, mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution.[47] For example, pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost.[48] This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias, and/or because the function had a cost, and once the benefit of the function disappeared, natural selection leads to the loss. Loss of sporulation ability in a bacterium during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias, rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability.[49] When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size,[50] indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift.

Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on cells, organisms have evolved mechanisms such as DNA repair to remove mutations.[51] Therefore, the optimal mutation rate for a species may be trade-off between costs of a high mutation rate, such as deleterious mutations, and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.[52] Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates,[53] which can be an advantage since these viruses will evolve constantly and rapidly, and thus evade the defensive responses of e.g. the human immune system.[54]

Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species.[55] Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.

Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population. Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. Population genetic models can be used to reconstruct the history of gene flow between populations.[56]

As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.[57]

Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules.[58] Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.[59] The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals,[60] with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.[61]

Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals.[62][63] Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis.[64] Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.[65]

Because of physical barriers to migration, along with limited tendency for individuals to move or spread (vagility), and tendency to remain or come back to natal place (philopatry), natural populations rarely all interbreed as convenient in theoretical random models (panmixy) (Buston et al., 2007). There is usually a geographic range within which individuals are more closely related to one another than those randomly selected from the general population. This is described as the extent to which a population is genetically structured (Repaci et al., 2007). Genetic structuring can be caused by migration due to historical climate change, species range expansion or current availability of habitat.

Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria.[66] In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.[67] Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis may also have occurred.[68][69] An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants.[70]Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.[71] Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.[72]

Basic models of population genetics consider only one gene locus at a time. In practice, epistatic and linkage relationships between loci may also be important.

Because of epistasis, the phenotypic effect of an allele at one locus may depend on which alleles are present at many other loci. Selection does not act on a single locus, but on a phenotype that arises through development from a complete genotype.

According to Lewontin (1974), the theoretical task for population genetics is a process in two spaces: a "genotypic space" and a "phenotypic space". The challenge of a complete theory of population genetics is to provide a set of laws that predictably map a population of genotypes (G1) to a phenotype space (P1), where selection takes place, and another set of laws that map the resulting population (P2) back to genotype space (G2) where Mendelian genetics can predict the next generation of genotypes, thus completing the cycle. Even leaving aside for the moment the non-Mendelian aspects of molecular genetics, this is clearly a gargantuan task. Visualizing this transformation schematically:

(adapted from Lewontin 1974, p.12). XD

T1 represents the genetic and epigenetic laws, the aspects of functional biology, or development, that transform a genotype into phenotype. We will refer to this as the "genotype-phenotype map". T2 is the transformation due to natural selection, T3 are epigenetic relations that predict genotypes based on the selected phenotypes and finally T4 the rules of Mendelian genetics.

In practice, there are two bodies of evolutionary theory that exist in parallel, traditional population genetics operating in the genotype space and the biometric theory used in plant and animal breeding, operating in phenotype space. The missing part is the mapping between the genotype and phenotype space. This leads to a "sleight of hand" (as Lewontin terms it) whereby variables in the equations of one domain, are considered parameters or constants, where, in a full-treatment they would be transformed themselves by the evolutionary process and are in reality functions of the state variables in the other domain. The "sleight of hand" is assuming that we know this mapping. Proceeding as if we do understand it is enough to analyze many cases of interest. For example, if the phenotype is almost one-to-one with genotype (sickle-cell disease) or the time-scale is sufficiently short, the "constants" can be treated as such; however, there are many situations where it is inaccurate.

If all genes are in linkage equilibrium, the effect of an allele at one locus can be averaged across the gene pool at other loci. In reality, one allele is frequently found in linkage disequilibrium with genes at other loci, especially with genes located nearby on the same chromosome. Recombination breaks up this linkage disequilibrium too slowly to avoid genetic hitchhiking, where an allele at one locus rises to high frequency because it is linked to an allele under selection at a nearby locus. This is a problem for population genetic models that treat one gene locus at a time. It can, however, be exploited as a method for detecting the action of natural selection via selective sweeps.

In the extreme case of primarily asexual populations, linkage is complete, and different population genetic equations can be derived and solved, which behave quite differently from the sexual case.[73] Most microbes, such as bacteria, are asexual. The population genetics of microorganisms lays the foundations for tracking the origin and evolution of antibiotic resistance and deadly infectious pathogens. Population genetics of microorganisms is also an essential factor for devising strategies for the conservation and better utilization of beneficial microbes (Xu, 2010).

Read more:
Population genetics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Arthritis can arise in many forms and can affect everyone including children and adolescents. While the most commonly known form, osteoarthritis, is a degenerative disease that progresses as we age, many forms of inflammatory arthritis can affect people at any age.

Osteoarthritis, also known as degenerative joint disease (DJD), happens when cartilage is worn down over time, usually from a lifetime of use or as the result of an injury to the joint. As the normally smooth surface of the cartilage is destroyed, exposing the underlying bone, the joint becomes more painful to move and the range of motion may diminish. This type of arthritis usually involves one or more large weight-bearing joints such as a hip or a knee. With this type of arthritis, pain is usually made worse with activity and is better with rest. It is common for symptoms to be at their worst at the end of the day.

This form of arthritis is usually treated with anti-inflammatory medications taken orally as a pill or as an injected form, and can also be relieved with physical therapy, exercise, and proper nutrition. Joint replacement surgery is considered when conservative, non-surgical methods have failed to provide adequate benefit. Hip replacement surgery and knee replacement surgery have become trusted treatments for restoring mobility and easing pain.

Thomas P. Sculco, MDexplains what arthritis is, what causes it, and how it can be avoided, diagnosed, andtreated. This is Part 1 of a series on total hip replacement surgery. The rest of this video series can be found here.

Less frequent but often more serious are the inflammatory forms of arthritis, which include conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. These forms usually involve many joints throughout the body at the same time andare caused by a problem with the immune system becoming over-active, resulting in joint inflammation. Arthritis caused by inflammation often results in pain and stiffness after periods of rest or inactivity, particularly in the morning. Swelling, redness and warmth may be present in the affected joints. Other areas in the body can be affected by the inflammation as well, including the skin and internal organs such as the lungs and heart.

Inflammatory arthritis is usually treated with a combination of medications to relieve swelling and pain while regulating the immune system. As with osteoarthritis, joint replacement surgery should also be considered when these non-surgical methods have failed to provide lasting benefit.

When detected and treated early, arthritis can be halted in its tracks. The HSS Inflammatory Arthritis Center connects patients quickly and efficiently with a rheumatologist who can evaluate their joint pain and get each patient started on an appropriate course of treatment. Hospital for Special Surgery also offers specialized patient education and support programs for conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

This webinarpresents an overview of the clinical research process, the phases of a clinical trial, and insight into the importance of medical research in patient care. Presenter: Jessica Gordon, MD, MSc Date Recorded: Thursday, March 14, 2013 Watch Now

To learn more about arthritis, access the articles, audio clips, and video programs in the categories listed below.

see also Osteoarthritis see also Rheumatoid Arthritis

see also Arthritis - Elbow see also Arthritis - Foot & Ankle see also Arthritis - Hand & Wrist see also Arthritis - Hip see also Arthritis - Knee see also Arthritis - Shoulder see also Arthritis - Thumb

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Arthritis Treatment at New York's Hospital for Special ...

Stem cell therapy is a type of cell therapy wherein cells are introduced into the damaged tissue so as to treat the disorder or the injury. There are a number of medical researchers who believes that the stem cell therapy has the potential to change the treatment of human diseases and reduce the suffering people face when they have a disease. They believe that there are a lot of potential to replace the damaged and diseased tissues in the body without getting the risk of rejections.

The stem cells have the ability to self-renew and also give rise to further generation of cells that can multiply. There are a number of stem cell therapies that do exist but most of them are still in the experimental stages. The treatments are very costly with an exception of bone marrow transplant. However, researchers believe that one day they will be able to develop technologies from embryonic stem cells and also adult stem cells to cure type I diabetes, cancer, Parkinsons disease, cardiac failure, neurological disorders and many more such ailments.

The stem cell therapy however carries its own pros and cons and like any other therapy it cannot be said that the stem cell therapy is an advantageous package. Here are some of the pros and cons of the therapy.

Pros of the stem cell therapy include:

It offers a lot of medical benefits in the therapeutic sectors of regenerative medicine and cloning.

It shows great potential in the treatment of a number of conditions like Parkinsons disease, spinal cord injuries, Alzheimers disease, schizophrenia, cancer, diabetes and many others.

It helps the researchers know more about the growth of human cells and their development.

In future, the stem cell research can allow the scientists to test a number of potential medicines and drugs without carrying out any test on animals and humans. The drug can be tested on a population of cells directly.

The stem cell therapy also allows researchers to study the developmental stages that cannot be known directly through the human embryo and can be used in the treatment of a number of birth defects, infertility problems and also pregnancy loss. A higher understanding will allow the treatment of the abnormal development in the human body.

The stem cell therapy puts into use the cells of the patients own body and hence the risk of rejection can be reduced because the cells belong to the same human body.

The cons of the stem cell therapy include the following:

The use of the stem cells for research involves the destruction of the blastocytes that are formed from the laboratory fertilization of the human egg.

The long term side effects of the therapy are still unknown.

The disadvantage of adult stem cells is that the cells of a particular origin would generate cells only of that type, like brain cells would generate only brain cells and so on.

If the cells used in the therapy are embryonic then the disadvantage is that the cells will not be from the same human body and there are chances of rejection.

The stem cell therapy is still under the process of research and there are a number of things that needs to be established before it used as a treatment line.

More here:
Pros and Cons of Stem Cell Therapy - Health Guidance

The immune system also produces proteins called antibodies that can help neutralise infection or the toxins that some germs produce.

Some infections, like influenza and the common cold, have to be fought many times, because so many different viruses can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold from one virus does not give you immunity against the others.

The immunisations you may need are decided by your health, age, lifestyle and occupation. Together, these factors are referred to as HALO.

HALO is defined as:

This page has been produced in consultation with and approved by: Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA)

Last updated: March 2015

Content on this website is provided for education and information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not imply endorsement and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional. Content has been prepared for Victorian residents and wider Australian audiences, and was accurate at the time of publication. Readers should note that, over time, currency and completeness of the information may change. All users are urged to always seek advice from a registered health care professional for diagnosis and answers to their medical questions.

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Immune system | Better Health Channel

immunesystem.com is dedicated as an information resource about the immune system.

With stress increasing steadily in our lives, our immune systems can become overwhelmed and unable to cope with so many diseases, staff infections, viruses, and bacteria. This can leads us to using more pharmaceutical products, which can save your life and/or further deteriorate your immune system.

How does one best boost the immune system naturally? What pharmaceuticals are best against which specific diseases?

At the moment, there is an ebola crisis that is threatening Africa. How does we protect ourselves from these oncoming epidemics and outbreaks?

Our goal here is to share information about the immune system and increasing the strength of the organism, and thus staying healthy in the face of an onslaught of pathogens.

An immune system is a synthesis of biological processes within any kind of organism that defends against disease by recognizing and killing pathogens and tumour cells. It detects a wide variety of pathogens, from bacteria to viruses, and distinguishes these pathogens from the organism's own healthy cells and tissues in order to function properly. Identification is not easily done, as pathogens can evolve quickly, producing mutations that avoid the immune system and allow the pathogens to successfully infect their hosts.

Malfunctions of the immune system can cause autoimmune and inflammatory diseases and cancer.[ Deficiency of the immune system occurs when the immune system is lethargic, with the potentional of serious infections spreading throughout the body. Immunodeficiency in humans can occur because of genetic diseases, such as severe combined immunodeficiency, environmentally acquired conditions like HIV/AIDS, or the overuse of certain immunosuppressive medications. Conversely, autoimmunity can be caused from a hyperactive immune system destroying normal tissues as if they were foreign pathogens organisms.

See the rest here:
Immune System

Your immune system is responsible for helping to eliminate invaders (antigens) such as infectious organisms. The key cells in your immune system are lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells, which originate in your bone marrow. After T cells further develop in your thymus, all of your immune system cells gather in your lymph nodes and spleen. Antigens (triangular shapes above) are ingested (1), partially digested (2) and then presented to helper T cells by special cells called macrophages (3). This process activates the helper T cell to release hormones (lymphokines) that help B cells develop (4). These hormones, along with recognition of further antigens (5), change the B cell into an antibody-producing plasma cell (6). The antibodies (Y shapes above) produced can be one of several types (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE and IgD) (7). The antibody "fits" the antigen much like a lock fits a key. The antigen is thus rendered harmless. The helper T cells also aid in development of cytotoxic T cells (8), which can kill antigens directly; memory T cells are produced (9) so that re-exposure to the same antigen will provide a more rapid and effective response (10).

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Your immune system - Mayo Clinic

Scanning electron micrograph of a human T lymphocyte (also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor. Source: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID).

The immune systems natural capacity to detect and destroy abnormal cells may prevent the development of many cancers. However, cancer cells are sometimes able to avoid detection and destruction by the immune system. Cancer cells may:

In the past few years, the rapidly advancing field of cancer immunology has produced several new methods of treating cancer, called immunotherapies, that increase the strength of immune responses against tumors. Immunotherapies either stimulate the activities of specific components of the immune system or counteract signals produced by cancer cells that suppress immune responses.

These advances in cancer immunotherapy are the result of long-term investments in basic research on the immune systemresearch that continues today. Additional research is currently under way to:

Why is immunotherapy such a hot area of cancer research today? In this short excerpt from the documentary, Cancer: The Emperor of All Maladies, PBS, Dr. Steven A. Rosenberg of the National Cancer Institutes Center for Cancer Research discusses his work in immunotherapy and its promise for cancer patients.

One immunotherapy approach is to block the ability of certain proteins, called immune checkpoint proteins, to limit the strength and duration of immune responses. These proteins normally keep immune responses in check by preventing overly intense responses that might damage normal cells as well as abnormal cells. But, researchers have learned that tumors can commandeer these proteins and use them to suppress immune responses.

Blocking the activity of immune checkpoint proteins releases the "brakes" on the immune system, increasing its ability to destroy cancer cells. Several immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The first such drug to receive approval, ipilimumab (Yervoy), for the treatment of advanced melanoma, blocks the activity of a checkpoint protein known as CTLA4, which is expressed on the surface of activated immune cells called cytotoxic T lymphocytes. CTLA4 acts as a "switch" to inactivate these T cells, thereby reducing the strength of immune responses; ipilimumab binds to CTLA4 and prevents it from sending its inhibitory signal.

Two other FDA-approved checkpoint inhibitors, nivolumab (Opdivo) and pembrolizumab (Keytruda), work in a similar way, but they target a different checkpoint protein on activated T cells known as PD-1. Nivolumab is approved to treat some patients with advanced melanoma or advanced lung cancer, and pembrolizumab is approved to treat some patients with advanced melanoma.

Researchers have also developed checkpoint inhibitors that disrupt the interaction of PD-1 and proteins on the surface of tumor cells known as PD-L1 and PD-L2. Agents that target other checkpoint proteins are also being developed, and additional research is aimed at understanding why checkpoint inhibitors are effective in some patients but not in others and identifying ways to expand the use of checkpoint inhibitors to other cancer types.

Progress is also being made with an experimental form of immunotherapy called adoptive cell transfer (ACT). In several small clinical trials testing ACT, some patients with very advanced cancerprimarily blood cancershave had their disease completely eradicated. In some cases, these treatment responses have lasted for years.

In one form of ACT, T cells that have infiltrated a patients tumor, called tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), are collected from samples of the tumor. TILs that show the greatest recognition of the patient's tumor cells in laboratory tests are selected, and large populations of these cells are grown in the laboratory. The cells are then activated by treatment with immune system signaling proteins called cytokines and infused into the patients bloodstream.

The idea behind this approach is that the TILs have already shown the ability to target tumor cells, but there may not be enough of them within the tumor microenvironment to eradicate the tumor or overcome the immune suppressive signals that are being released there. Introducing massive amounts of activated TILs can help to overcome these barriers and shrink or destroy tumors.

Another form of ACT that is being actively studied is CAR T-cell therapy. In this treatment approach, a patients T cells are collected from the blood and genetically modified to express a protein known as a chimeric antigen receptor, or CAR. Next, the modified cells are grown in the laboratory to produce large populations of the cells, which are then infused into the patient.

CARs are modified forms of a protein called a T-cell receptor, which is expressed on the surface of T cells. These receptors allow the modified T cells to attach to specific proteins on the surface of cancer cells. Once bound to the cancer cells, the modified T cells become activated and attack the cancer cells.

Therapeutic antibodies are antibodies made in the laboratory that are designed to cause the destruction of cancer cells.

One class of therapeutic antibodies, called antibodydrug conjugates (ADCs), has proven to be particularly effective, with several ADCs having been approved by the FDA for the treatment of different cancers.

ADCs are created by chemically linking antibodies, or fragments of antibodies, to a toxic substance. The antibody portion of the ADC allows it to bind to a target molecule that is expressed on the surface of cancer cells. The toxic substance can be a poison, such as a bacterial toxin; a small-molecule drug; or a radioactive compound. Once an ADC binds to a cancer cell, it is taken up by the cell and the toxic substance kills the cell.

The FDA has approved several ADCs for the treatment of patients with cancer, including:

Other therapeutic antibodies do not carry toxic payloads. Some of these antibodies cause cancer cells to commit suicide (apoptosis) when they bind to them. In other cases, antibody binding to cancer cells is recognized by certain immune cells or proteins known collectively as "complement," which are produced by immune cells, and these cells and proteins mediate cancer cell death (via antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity or complement-dependent cytotoxicity, respectively). Sometimes all three mechanisms of inducing cancer cell death can be involved.

One example of this type of therapeutic antibody is rituximab (Rituxan), which targets a protein on the surface of B lymphocytes called CD20. Rituximab has become a mainstay in the treatment of some B-cell lymphomas and B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia. When CD20-expressing cells become coated with rituximab, the drug kills the cells by inducing apoptosis, as well as by antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and complement-dependent cytotoxicity.

Other therapies combine non-antibody immune system molecules and cancer-killing agents. For example, denileukin diftitox (ONTAK), which is approved for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, consists of the cytokine interleukin-2 (IL-2) attached to a toxin produced by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheria, which causes diphtheria. Some leukemia and lymphoma cells express receptors for IL-2 on their surface. Denileukin diftitox uses its IL-2 portion to target these cancer cells and the diphtheria toxin to kill them.

The use of cancer treatment (or therapeutic) vaccines is another approach to immunotherapy. These vaccines are usually made from a patients own tumor cells or from substances produced by tumor cells. They are designed to treat cancers that have already developed by strengthening the bodys natural defenses against the cancer.

In 2010, the FDA approved the first cancer treatment vaccine, sipuleucel-T (Provenge), for use in some men with metastatic prostate cancer. Other therapeutic vaccines are being tested in clinical trials to treat a range of cancers, including brain, breast, and lung cancer.

Yet another type of immunotherapy uses proteins that normally help regulate, or modulate, immune system activity to enhance the bodys immune response against cancer. These proteins include cytokines and certain growth factors. Two types of cytokines are used to treat patients with cancer: interleukins and interferons.

Immune-modulating agents may work through different mechanisms. One type of interferon, for example, enhances a patients immune response to cancer cells by activating certain white blood cells, such as natural killer cells and dendritic cells. Recent advances in understanding how cytokines stimulate immune cells could enable the development of more effective immunotherapies and combinations of these agents.

Immunotherapy research at NCI is done across the institute and spans the continuum from basic scientific research to clinical research applications.

The Center of Excellence in Immunology (CEI) brings together researchers from across NCI and other NIH institutes to foster the discovery, development, and delivery of immunotherapy approaches to prevent and treat cancer and cancer-associated viral diseases.

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Immunotherapy: Using the Immune System to Treat Cancer ...

Posted by Mark Crislip on September 25, 2009

My right bicep. Oily, a little sticky, and otherwise completely unlike your immune system.

This post is a wee bit of a cheat in that it is a rewrite of a Quackcast, but I have three lectures and board certification in the near future, so sometimes you have to cook the wolf.

What does that mean: boost the immune system? Most people apparently think that the immune system is like a muscle, and by working it, giving it supplements and vitamins, the immune system will become stronger. Bigger. More impressive, bulging like Mr. Universes bicep. Thats the body part I am thinking about. What they are boosting is vague, on par with chi/qi or innate intelligence. They never really say what is being boosted.

The other popular phrase is support. A product supports prostate health, or breast health or supports the immune system. It sounds like the immune system is sagging against gravity due to age and needs a lift.

The immune system, if you are otherwise healthy, cannot be boosted, and doing those things you learned in kindergarten health (reasonable diet, exercise and sleep), will provide the immune system all the boosting or support it needs.

Someone is going to write in and say Americans have a lousy diet and dont exercise and can benefit from better food and exercise. And thats true. If you are not taking care of yourself, your immune function can be improved to function better. But if you are at your optimal baseline, you cannot make your immune function better.

What is the immune system? The immune system is a mind boggling complex set of coordinated cells and proteins.

There are antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE and IgM, further divided into 5 subtypes of IgG and 2 of IgA, each with a different affinity for different parts of pathogens.

There is complement, a series of proteins that can be activated by two separate pathways and are important in killing some kinds of bacteria and attracting white cells to infection.

There are blood components: Polymorphonuclear leukocytes, also known as white cells. And monocytes. And eosinophils and macrophages. And the lymphocytes oh my, of which there are multiple types and with different functions. Each cell line can have either a specific task or a general task in the attempt to prevent you from dying from infection. If you are infected by a virus, there is one response, a bacterium produces a different response, a parasite, yet another response, and within each response there are subsets of types of response depending on the pathogen and whether or not you have been exposed to the infectious agent in the past.

There are all the proteins and their receptors that regulate the response to infection: chemokines and interferons and interleukins, a hodgepodge of letters and numbers: IL6 and TNF and CCR5 and on and on and on.

There is the Toll system, a wing of the immune system so ancient it is found in plants.

And there all the nonspecific parts of immunity that help prevent infection: platelets and cilia that sweep potential pathogens out and iron metabolism that keeps iron away from bacteria and the list goes on and on and on. The above is the briefest of overviews of the constituents of the immune system. It is almost like saying you have described the works of Shakespeare by noting it contains the words the, and, of, verily, and forsooth. But the purpose of this post is not to describe the immune system in detail as I would soon embarrass myself.

So when something allegedly boosts the immune system, I have to ask what part. How? What is it strengthening/boosting/supporting? Antibodies? Complement? White cells? Are the results from test tubes (often meaningless), animal studies, or human studies? And if in human studies, what was the study population? Are the results even meaningful? Or small, barely statistically significant, outcomes in poorly-done studies?

The answer, as we shall see, is usually nothing. It is the usual making a Mt. Everest out of a molehill, and a small molehill at that. If you google the phrase boost the immune system you will find over 288,000 pages that give advice on how to give that old immune system a lift. Curiously, a Pubmed search with the same phase yields 1,100 references, most concerning vaccination. If you Pubmed enhanced immune system you get 41,000 references mostly concerning immunology. None of the references concern taking a normal person and making the immune system work better than its baseline to prevent or treat infection. I have yet to see a quality clinical study that demonstrates that, in normal, not nutritionally- or otherwise-compromised people, that some intervention can lead to a meaningful increase in immune function and as a result have fewer infections. Maybe such a study exists. I cant find it. Send me the reference. I suppose the comment section will soon flood me with examples.

If you are normal and in good health, there is nothing you can do to make your baseline better.

Randomly reading some of the advice on boosting the immune system yields Dr. Phil-level inanities that are trivial yet true. Get a good nights sleep. Duh. Exercise regularly. Double duh. Avoid being a fat ass couch potato American whose idea of exercise is driving to Burger King for a triple Whopper with extra-large fries. What a concept. Dont smoke or drink. These sites often intermix common, well-known beneficial lifestyle changes with all sorts of nonsense.

By the way, I need a lifestyle. Best as I can tell, I just have a life. I live it, and someday I wont. But I need style. That is the problem of being from Portland: no style. Its the old joke: whats the difference between yogurt and Portland, Oregon? Yogurt has culture. Sigh.

There are numerous quack nostrums that allegedly boost your immune system. Exactly what is boosted and how is a mystery. Perhaps you are filled with toxins, then any number of detoxification regimens can improve your immune function. How precisely? Another mystery.

All the classic quack interventions: chiropractic, homeopathy, acupuncture, can also boost your immune system by, you know, changing some energy vibration or unblocking something or other. In fact one of the amazing things is that as best I can tell, there is no quack practice that someone, somewhere, will not say boosts your immune system.

People who receive regular chiropractic adjustments have immune system competency that is 200% greater than those who dont.

Homeopathic remedies stimulate the immune system to assist the body in repairing any imbalances that may have occurred.

The following acupressure points are effective for dealing with a condition that may be caused by a weak immune system. Elegant Mansion (K 27) reinforces immune system functioning by strengthening the respiratory system. Steady, firm pressure on the Sea Of Vitality points (B 23 and B 47) fortifies the immune system, rejuvenates the internal organs, and relieves pain associated with lower back problems. The Sea of Energy (CV 6) tones the abdominal muscles and intestines, and helps fortify the immune, urinary, and reproductive systems. Firm pressure on the Three Mile Point (St 36) immediately boosts the immune system with renewed energy. It helps tone and strengthen the major muscle groups, providing greater endurance. Bigger Stream (K 3) on the inside of the ankle helps balance the kidney meridian and strengthen the immune system. Bigger Rushing (Lv 3) and Crooked Pond (LI 11),ire important points for relieving pain and strengthening the immune system. The Outer Gate point (TW 5) helps to balance the immune system and strengthen the whole body. Hoku (LI 4) is a famous decongestant and anti-inflammatory point; it relieves arthritic pain and strengthens the immune system Last, and most important of all, the Sea of Tranquility (CV 17) governs the bodys resistance to illness and decreases anxiety by regulating the thymus gland. Each of these important points benefits the immune system by enabling the internal organs to function at optimal levels.

I suspect that if one were to do all these interventions as once, your immune system would be raised to such a high level of activation that you would probably spontaneously combust. You heard it here first: the reason for spontaneous combustion is multiple, simultaneous boostings of the immune system.

This kind of nonsense is successful in part because that we all are aware that chance of illness increases with the number of stressors in your life, and the worse your life or lifestyle, the worse you are likely to feel and the more likely you are to have an illness. This phenomenon is real for groups of people. The more stressors, the higher the likelihood something will bad will happen with your life. This effect is harder to quantify for an individual. If you dont sleep well, eat poorly, dont exercise, get a divorce and a parent dies, in the next year you are more likely to have a medical problem. I remember toting up my stress score in medical school and based on my number I should have been dead three months earlier.

I would bet that when people turn to these quack nostrums, they do feel better, but not because of the nostrums, but because, for however short a period of time, they are no longer participating in the less than optimal habits that define standard American diet and activity. What they are probably doing is getting back towards a baseline of optimal health, not improving their health past what it is capable of.

I would bet 6 million years of evolution have more or less tuned our immune system to be running optimally, as long as we do the basics of eating well, exercising etc. All the stuff we failed to learn in kindergarten. You can be deficient in vitamins or sleep, etc., which will make you prone to illness, but if you are at baseline, you cant improve your immune system in any meaningful way.

When reading the literature on the immune boosting properties of various products you find there are several kinds of results that they use to justify their claims, all with a thick coating of exaggeration and hyperbole.

The first is just made up. Somebody somewhere decided that this product enhanced immune function. Often the claim is based on ancient wisdom. You know, ancient wisdom, the same ancient wisdom that gave us the flat Earth and slavery and women as inferior, that ancient wisdom. Always a reliable indicator. Most of the time there is no data to support the claims of immune boosting.

Then there are test tube tests for boosting immune system,

The immune system is always looking to distinguish between self and not self. All the cells of your body are labeled with proteins, the major histocompatabilty complex for those of you keeping score, that are, in part, signals to the immune system. This protein on my cell surface identifies me as me to me. And no I am not preparing to sing opera. It tells the immune system, dont shoot, Im one of you. Other peoples tissue dont have the same labels. Bacteria and other pathogens not only lack these signals, they have constituents in their cells that the body has evolved very specific responses against.

For example, E. coli has a toxin, called lipopolysaccaride in its cell walls that the body very specifically recognizes with a wing of the immune system, called the Toll-like receptor. If you incubate immune cells in a test tube with chemicals or non-self life (bacteria, virus, etc.) the cells react. That is what they are supposed to do. In medicine we call it the inflammatory response.

Oh look: Virus. Fungus. New chemical. Is it part of us? Nope. Respond. Kill kill kill. Here is a point I have made in the past. If you take a cell from the immune system and expose it to some chemicals or bacteria, you activate it, you get an inflammatory response. Its primed. And if you then challenge that activated cell with another pathogen, it will kill that pathogen better than if the cell was not primed. It only works with some pathogens, usually those that are killed by nonspecific cell-medicated immunity.

Listeria and Candida are always popular pathogens that the immune system responds with a nonspecific (i.e. cellular) rather than a specific (i.e. humoral or antibody) response, probably because they are unusual enough pathogens that it made no sense evolutionarily to develop a specific response like we see to more common pathogens.

Some organisms, often unusual ones, are killed with a nonspecific response of the immune system, whereas others, such as viruss, which are killed by very specific antibody, or meningococcus, which really needs complement for optimal killing. This response is used to suggest that the immune system is being boosted and they imply that this boosting is to your benefit. Other test tube studies may show that mediators of inflammation, such as TNF or Il-1 are increased, which is what one would expect if you expose the immune system to a pathogen or a probiotic organism.

Those who say that that their product, for example probiotics, boost the immune system, point to studies such as these that show that in response to bacteria, cells of the immune system are activated, they are exhibiting the expected inflammatory response to a foreign invader. They call it boosting. I call it the inflammatory response. What could be better than priming your immune system so that it is better able to respond to a pathogen? This preamble leads us to the meat of this post: Is it good to have the immune system activated? Is it good to have your immune system primed? Or boosted? Maybe not. It does explain why taking a probiotic helps increase the antibody response to influenza vaccine in the elderly and decreases the duration of respiratory infections. A short term inflammatory response may be of benefit, but it may not be an effect you want to have persist.

But here is some recent, interesting literature, about the effects of having an inflammatory response to acute and chronic infections. Chronic inflammation of all types is associated with atherosclerosis i.e. hardening of the arteries, nicely reviewed in Libby et al.s Circulation article, Inflammation and Atherosclerosis from 2002. An inflammatory state can occur from many things, not just infections.

First up: the NEJM, Treatment of periodontitis and endothelial function from 2007.

Periodontitis is gum infection and endothelial cells are them what line the arteries of the body. So they took a 120 people in England with bad periodontal disease (insert your own English dentition joke here, I dont stoop to those kind of cheap shots) to either aggressive treatment of their disease or standard treatment. Aggressive treatment consisted of scenes from the movie Marathon Man:

Patients in the intensive-treatment group underwent the adjunctive full-mouth intensive removal of subgingival dental plaque biofilms with the use of scaling and root planing after the administration of local anesthesia; teeth that could not be saved were extracted, and microspheres of minocycline were delivered locally into the periodontal pocket.

What they looked at in this study, however, were markers of inflammation and endothelial function. Initially, when they were really reefing and scraping the teeth, which is going to cause bacteremia and bleeding, the aggressively treated group had a big spike in signs of inflammation, but long term, as their gums healed, they had a decrease markers of inflammation and better measured arterial flow. Those in the standard group did not get the same long term response; they continued to have signs of inflammation and endothelial cell activation. And this means?

Chronic exposure to bacteria leads to an inflammatory state and has detrimental effects on arteries. Taking lots of probiotics, or other substances that cause an inflammatory response, or boosting the immune system in the parlance of the quacks, should act like chronic periodontitis with chronic sustained signs of inflammation.

Who cares?

Maybe you, if you are taking immune boosters that could really activate the immune system; that should lead to chronic inflammation, which is associated with hardening of the arteries.

But wait. Theres more. The inflammatory state is a prothombotic state. Infected people make blood clots, and they can make these clots for a long time. Clots can manifest in several common ways: heart attacks, strokes, and pulmonary emboli (i.e. blood clot to the lung). There are now several studies out there demonstrate an epidemiological link between a recent infection and a thrombotic event. For example, from Risk of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism after acute infection in a community setting, Lancet, 2006:

7278 deep vein thrombosis patients and 3755 pulmonary embolism patients who were registered in a UK general practice database from 1987 to 2004. In the 2 weeks after a urinary tract infection, the risks of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism increased by 2.1-fold each, the report indicates. It took longer than 1 year for these elevated risks to return to baseline values.

Urinary tract infections increase your risk of blood clots and pulmonary embolism for up to a year.

How about heart attacks? Well, in Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007; 45:158-65 they looked at acute myocardial infarction and acute pneumococcal pneumonia and found an association, which had been noted since early last century. Acute pneumonia leads to heart attack.

Stroke? In European Heart Journal they looked at a database of strokes and heart attacks and found that:

There was strong evidence of an increased risk of both events in the seven days following infection for MI, the adjusted odds ratio (OR) was 2.10, and for stroke, the OR was 1.92. The risk was highest in the three days following infection (OR 3.75 for MI and 4.07 for stroke). The risk of events was reduced over time, so there was little excess risk beyond one month after infection.

And a simple community-acquired pneumonia decreases 5 year life expectancy in a VA population from 84 months to 34 months:

Although the cause of the decreased long-term survival is not yet clear, it may be that the systemic inflammatory response produced by CAP accelerates the natural course of medical comorbidities such as atherosclerosis, Dr. Peyrani suggested. This hypothesis, she said, is bolstered by a recent study that showed reduced long-term survival in CAP+ patients who were clinically cured but had increased interleukin 6 and interleukin 10 levels at the time of hospital discharge.

So chronic inflammation and acute inflammation both increase your risk of thrombosis and vascular events. What would probiotics and immune boosters do if they really worked? They would cause acute and chronic inflammation. For those who may think I am talking about vaccines, not here. Vaccines cause the development of a specific antibody against whatever you are immunizing against, but it does not cause a generalized inflammatory response.

Now I am well aware that association is not causality, and I am also well aware of the issues with epidemiological data to prove causality. But I submit for your consideration that if some product is really boosting your immune system, it is really activating your inflammatory response, and perhaps it may not be such a good idea.

Whenever I listen to skeptics talk about ID, they always complain how ID cannot make any predictions. Now I have been practicing ID for 23 years, and it is a science and I can make predictions. To suggest that ID is somehow inferior is. Huh? What? ID is intelligent design? Not infectious diseases? Oh. Thats different. Never mind.

But I will make a prediction: people who use probiotics or other substances that can measurably lead to an inflammatory response, or, have their immune system boosted, will have more strokes, heart attacks and pulmonary embolisms. So when you read that some product or other boosts the immune system, ask:

If the answer to number three is a big yes, perhaps you should avoid the product. When it comes to your immune system, if you are normal, leaving good enough alone is probably the way to go.

Read the original here:
Boost Your Immune System? Science-Based Medicine

The immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections. The immune mechanisms help an organism identify a pathogen, and neutralize its threat.[1]

The immune system can detect and identify many different kinds of disease agents. Examples are viruses, bacteria and parasites. The immune system can detect a difference between the body's own healthy cells or tissues, and 'foreign' cells. Detecting an unhealthy intruder is complicated, because intruders can evolve and adapt so that the immune system will no longer detect them.

Once a foreign cell or protein is detected, the immune system creates antibodies to fight the intruders, and sends special cells ('phagocytes') to eat them up.

Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess enzyme systems that protect against viral infections. Other basic immune mechanisms appeared in ancient life forms and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants and insects. These mechanisms include antimicrobial peptides (called defensins), phagocytosis, and the complement system. These are the innate immune system, which defends the host from infections in a non-specific way.[2] The simplest innate system is the cell wall or barrier on the outside to stop intruders getting in. For example, skin stops most outside bacteria getting in.

Vertebrates, including humans, have much more sophisticated defense mechanisms. Whereas the innate immune system is found in all metazoa, the adaptive immune system is only found in vertebrates. It is thought to have arisen in the first jawed vertebrates.[3]

The adaptive immune response gives the vertebrate immune system the ability to recognize and remember specific pathogens. The system mounts stronger attacks each time the pathogen is encountered. It is adaptive immunity because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges.

The typical vertebrate immune system consists of many types of proteins, cells, organs, and tissues that interact in a complex and ever-changing network. This acquired immunity creates a kind of "immunological memory".

The process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. Primary response can take 2 days to 2 weeks to develop. After the body gains immunity towards a certain pathogen, if infection by that pathogen occurs again, the immune response is called the secondary response.

In some organisms, the immune system has its own problems within itself, called disorders. These result in other diseases, including autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and possibly even cancer.[4][5]Immunodeficiency diseases occur when the immune system is less active than normal. Immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic (inherited) disease, or an infection, such as the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), that is caused by the retrovirus HIV, or other causes.

In contrast, autoimmune diseases result from an immune system that attacks normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, Type 1 diabetes, and Lupus erythematosus.

Immunology is the study of all aspects of the immune system. It is very important to health and diseases.

Immunology is scientific part of medicine that studies the causes of immunity to disease. For many centuries people have noticed that those who recover from some infectious diseases do not get that illness a second time.[6]

In the 18th century, Pierre Louis Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and saw that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.[7] This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (18221895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease.[8] Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (18431910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease.[9] Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (18511902).[10]

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity[11] and cellular immunity.[12] Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (18541915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (18451916).[13]

The immune system is extremely ancient, and may go back to single-celled eukaryotes which needed to distinguish between what was food and what was part of themselves.[14]

Excerpt from:
Immune system - Simple English Wikipedia, the free ...

[Below is my transcript of my video about winning the battle with your immune system, along with supplemental information on immune system boosters.]

Today, Im going to share with you how to win the battle for your immune system and really create a strong immune system and boost your immune system naturally with probiotics.

One of the biggest keys in doing so is getting more probiotics benefits and foods in your diet and improving your digestive health. In fact, theres new research showing that a condition called leaky gut is a major cause of food sensitivities, autoimmune disease, and immune imbalance or a weakened immune system in the body, and again, the key is really increasing probiotics. There are really two main steps here in the immune system boosters probiotics offer.

Stay away from the toxicity of tap water that contains fluoride and chlorine. Be careful of taking prescription antibiotic medications. Thats the leading cause of probiotics getting wipe out today.

Then also be careful about not consuming too much sugar. Consuming too much sugar can cause bad bacteria to feed, which actually imbalances the good and bad bacteria in your body. Sugar can even cause cancer.

Probiotics are good bacteria that help you digest nutrients that help detoxify your colon and that help balance out and support your immune system within your body. So the next step is consuming more probiotic foods and taking a quality probiotic supplement.

The probiotic foods you should look to consume are things like:

Getting some of those probiotic foods will absolutely help your immune system and then so will taking a quality probiotic supplement that contains live or living probiotics. Getting a better brand will help you with those.

Again, if you want to take your immune system to the next level, start staying away from the things that kill probiotics. Load up your diet with probiotics. If you do so, youre going to take your immune system and function to the next level.

There are numerous different recipes that are great immune system boosters and theyre delicious, too! Check out some of my favorite immune-boosting recipes.

Immune-Boosting Juice Recipe

Total Time: 5 minutes Serves: 2

INGREDIENTS:

DIRECTIONS:

Immune-Boosting Smoothie Recipe

Total Time: 5 minutes

Serves: 1

INGREDIENTS:

DIRECTIONS:

Link:
Immune System Boosters: Winning the Battle with Your ...