StemCell Therapy

Nanotechnology involves manipulating properties and structures at the nanoscale, often involving dimensions that are just tiny fractions of the width of a human hair. Nanotechnology is already being used in products in its passive form, such as cosmetics and sunscreens, and it is expected that in the coming decades, new phases of products, such as better batteries and improved electronics equipment, will be developed and have far-reaching implications.

One area of nanotechnology application that holds the promise of providing great benefits for society in the future is in the realm of medicine. Nanotechnology is already being used as the basis for new, more effective drug delivery systems and is in early stage development as scaffolding in nerve regeneration research. Moreover, the National Cancer Institute has created the Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer in the hope that investments in this branch of nanomedicine could lead to breakthroughs in terms of detecting, diagnosing, and treating various forms of cancer.

Nanotechnology medical developments over the coming years will have a wide variety of uses and could potentially save a great number of lives. Nanotechnology is already moving from being used in passive structures to active structures, through more targeted drug therapies or smart drugs. These new drug therapies have already been shown to cause fewer side effects and be more effective than traditional therapies. In the future, nanotechnology will also aid in the formation of molecular systems that may be strikingly similar to living systems. These molecular structures could be the basis for the regeneration or replacement of body parts that are currently lost to infection, accident, or disease. These predictions for the future have great significance not only in encouraging nanotechnology research and development but also in determining a means of oversight. The number of products approaching the FDA approval and review process is likely to grow as time moves forward and as new nanotechnology medical applications are developed.

To better understand current and future applications of nanotechnology in various fields of medicine, the project has developed two web-based resources that track medical developments focused on cancer and drug delivery systems.

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Nanotechnology and Medicine / Nanotechnology Medical ...

I am Dr. Yoon Hang Kim, an integrative medicine specialist who specializes in assisting patients with complex medical issues.

I began my training in family medicine, however, I felt frustrated and limited by using conventional approach alone. This led to my continued specialization into preventive medicine, medical acupuncture, and integrative medicine. In my training journey, I was fortunate to train with best physicians in the field including Dr. Andrew Weil.

In my 30s I developed severe and debilitating chronic pain. I tried every suggested modality within conventional medicines, including surgery, all of which failed me.

I researched potential answers and then developed a new approach to treating pain Neuroanatomic Approach to Pain. The results of the treatments was incredible. Neuroanatomic approach to pain not only freed me from my pain, it also restored my ability to function.

Today, I utilize my Neuroanatomic Approach to Pain to help others recover from severe pain and rediscover their happiness and functionality. Looking back, I realize that my own experience with severe, debilitating chronic pain gave me the unique insight I needed so that I can help people with chronic pain. Through my work I have recognized that chronic pain is a problem that can be dealt with, and it does not have to ruin lives or hamper the health of my patients.

Over time, I grew frustrated as I watched family members struggle with allopathic treatments for their autoimmune disorders. My frustration become inspiration, as I worked hard to develop another clinical expertise: treating autoimmune conditions such as Hashimotos thyroiditis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, fibromyalgia, respiratory allergies, and food allergies. My desire to help these loved ones inspired me to develop an Autoimmune Condition Reset program.

Successful autoimmune diseases treated by Integrative Autoimmune Reset program include: Multiple Scleorosis, Lupus, Crohns disease, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Mixed Connective Tissue Disorder.

It gives me great joy to say that this program is currently helping my family members and my patients cope with their ailments.

I believe in and practice integrative medicine because it expands my toolbox, the options for healing that I can offer my patients. However, after practicing all of these years, I realize that, fueled by a natural gift for problem solving and combined with tenacity and perseverance, my true calling is solving complex medical problems. A large majority of my patients have given up hope that anyone can find viable solutions for them. I derive a great deal of satisfaction from working with these patients and improving the quality of their lives. It is that personal connection with my patients that I seek, a partnership that is integral to the wellbeing of the people I work with. My staff members and I take these relationships seriously, and we work hard to forge a genuine, meaningful relationship with each of our patients. In our experience, these authentic connections are vital to patients health, and serve a big role in overall healing. Ultimately, we greatly value both the strengths of conventional medicine and the wisdom of complementary and alternate healing modalities.

More here:
Chronic Pain Treatment | Georgia Integrative Medicine, Atlanta

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Excerpt from:
Recent Articles | Genetic Engineering | The Scientist ...

On behalf of the organizing committee, it is my distinct pleasure to invite you to attend the Stem Cell Congress-2017. After the success of the Cell Science-2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, Conference series.LLC is proud to announce the 6th World Congress and expo on Cell & Stem Cell Research (Stem Cell Congress-2017) which is going to be held during March 20-22, 2017, Orlando, Florida, USA. The theme of Stem Cell Congress-2017 is Explore and Exploit the Novel Techniques in Cell and Stem Cell Research.

This annual Cell Science conference brings together domain experts, researchers, clinicians, industry representatives, postdoctoral fellows and students from around the world, providing them with the opportunity to report, share, and discuss scientific questions, achievements, and challenges in the field.

Examples of the diverse cell science and stem cell topics that will be covered in this comprehensive conference include Cell differentiation and development, Cell metabolism, Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, Stem cell therapy, Cell and gene therapy, Novel stem cell technologies, Stem cell and cancer biology, Stem cell treatment, Tendency in cell biology of aging and Apoptosis and cancer disease, Drugs and clinical developments. The meeting will focus on basic cell mechanism studies, clinical research advances, and recent breakthroughs in cell and stem cell research. With the support of many emerging technologies, dramatic progress has been made in these areas. In Stem Cell Congress-2017, you will be able to share experiences and research results, discuss challenges encountered and solutions adopted and have opportunities to establish productive new academic and industry research collaborations.

In association with the Stem Cell Congress-2017 conference, we will invite those selected to present at the meeting to publish a manuscript from their talk in the journal Cell Science with a significantly discounted publication charge. Please join us in Philadelphia for an exciting all-encompassing annual Stem Cell get together with the theme of better understanding from basic cell mechanisms to latest Stem Cell breakthroughs!

Haval Shirwan, Ph.D. Executive Editor, Journal of Clinical & Cellular Immunology Dr. Michael and Joan Hamilton Endowed Chair in Autoimmune Disease Professor, Department of Microbiology and Immunology Director, Molecular Immunomodulation Program, Institute for Cellular Therapeutics, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY

Track01:Stem Cells

The most well-established and widely used stem cell treatment is thetransplantationof blood stem cells to treat diseases and conditions of the blood and immune system, or to restore the blood system after treatments for specific cancers. Since the 1970s,skin stem cellshave been used to grow skin grafts for patients with severe burns on very large areas of the body. Only a few clinical centers are able to carry out this treatment and it is usually reserved for patients with life-threatening burns. It is also not a perfect solution: the new skin has no hair follicles or sweat glands. Research aimed at improving the technique is ongoing.

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7thAnnual Conference on Stem Cell and Regenerative MedicineAug 4-5, 2016, Manchester, UK;2nd InternationalConference on AntibodiesJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd InternationalConference on Innate ImmunityJuly 21-22, 2016 Berlin, Germany; 2ndInternational Congress on Neuroimmunology March 31-April 02, 2016 Atlanta, USA; InternationalConference on Cancer Immunology July 28-30, 2016 Melbourne, Australia; 5th InternationalConference on ImmunologyOctober 24-26, 2016 Chicago, USA;Cancer Vaccines: Targeting Cancer Genes for Immunotherapy, Mar 610 2016, Whistler, Canada;Systems Immunology: From Molecular Networks to Human Biology, Jan 1014 2016, Big Sky, USA;Novel Immunotherapeutics Summit, Jan 2526 2016, San Diego, USA;Stromal Cells in Immunity, Feb 711 2016, Keystone, USA; 26th European Congress ofClinical Microbiology, April 912 2016, Istanbul, Turkey

Track 02: Stem Cell Banking:

Stem Cell Banking is a facility that preserves stem cells derived from amniotic fluid for future use. Stem cell samples in private or family banks are preserved precisely for use by the individual person from whom such cells have been collected and the banking costs are paid by such person. The sample can later be retrieved only by that individual and for the use by such individual or, in many cases, by his or her first-degree blood relatives.

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Track 03: Stem Cell Therapy:

Autologous cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures. Adult stem cells are frequently used in medical therapies, for example in bone marrow transplantation. Human embryonic stem cells may be grown in vivo and stimulated to produce pancreatic -cells and later transplanted to the patient. Its success depends on response of the patients immune system and ability of the transplanted cells to proliferate, differentiate and integrate with the target tissue.

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Track 04: Novel Stem Cell Technologies:

Stem cell technology is a rapidly developing field that combines the efforts of cell biologists, geneticists, and clinicians and offers hope of effective treatment for a variety of malignant and non-malignant diseases. Stem cells are defined as totipotent progenitor cells capable of self-renewal and multilineage differentiation. Stem cells survive well and show stable division in culture, making them ideal targets for in vitro manipulation. Although early research has focused on haematopoietic stem cells, stem cells have also been recognised in other sites. Research into solid tissue stem cells has not made the same progress as that on haematopoietic stem cells.

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Track 05: Stem Cell Treatment:

Bone marrow transplant is the most extensively used stem-cell treatment, but some treatment derived from umbilical cord blood are also in use. Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells, and to apply stem-cell treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and conditions, diabetes, heart disease, and other conditions.

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Track 06: Stem cell apoptosis and signal transduction:

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death (PCD) that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, chromosomal DNA fragmentation, and global mRNA decay. Most cytotoxic anticancer agents induce apoptosis, raising the intriguing possibility that defects in apoptotic programs contribute to treatment failure. Because the same mutations that suppress apoptosis during tumor development also reduce treatment sensitivity, apoptosis provides a conceptual framework to link cancer genetics with cancer therapy.

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Track 07: Stem Cell Biomarkers:

Molecular biomarkers serve as valuable tools to classify and isolate embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and to monitor their differentiation state by antibody-based techniques. ESCs can give rise to any adult cell type and thus offer enormous potential for regenerative medicine and drug discovery. A number of biomarkers, such as certain cell surface antigens, are used to assign pluripotent ESCs; however, accumulating evidence suggests that ESCs are heterogeneous in morphology, phenotype and function, thereby classified into subpopulations characterized by multiple sets of molecular biomarkers.

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Track 08: Cellular therapies:

Cellular therapy also called Cell therapy is therapy in which cellular material is injected into a patient, this generally means intact, living cells. For example, T cells capable of fighting cancer cells via cell-mediated immunity may be injected in the course of immunotherapy.

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Track 09: Stem cells and cancer:

Cancer can be defined as a disease in which a group of abnormal cells grow uncontrollably by disregarding the normal rules of cell division. Normal cells are constantly subject to signals that dictate whether the cells should divide, differentiate into another cell or die. Cancer cells develop a degree of anatomy from these signals, resulting in uncontrolled growth and proliferation. If this proliferation is allowed to continue and spread, it can be fatal.

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Track 10: Embryonic stem cells:

Embryonic stem cells have a major potential for studying early steps of development and for use in cell therapy. In many situations, however, it will be necessary to genetically engineer these cells. A novel generation of lentivectors which permit easy genetic engineering of mouse and human embryonic stem cells.

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Track 11: Cell differentiation and disease modeling:

Cellular differentiation is the progression, whereas a cell changes from one cell type to another. Variation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation continues in adulthood as adult stem cells divide and create fully differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover. Some differentiation occurs in response to antigen exposure. Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, membrane potential, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression and are the study of epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiationalmost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.

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Track 12: Tissue engineering:

Tissue Engineering is the study of the growth of new connective tissues, or organs, from cells and a collagenous scaffold to produce a fully functional organ for implantation back into the donor host. Powerful developments in the multidisciplinary field of tissue engineering have produced a novel set of tissue replacement parts and implementation approaches. Scientific advances in biomaterials, stem cells, growth and differentiation factors, and biomimetic environments have created unique opportunities to fabricate tissues in the laboratory from combinations of engineered extracellular matrices cells, and biologically active molecules.

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Track 13: Stem cell plasticity and reprogramming:

Stem cell plasticity denotes to the potential of stem cells to give rise to cell types, previously considered outside their normal repertoire of differentiation for the location where they are found. Included under this umbrella title is often the process of transdifferentiation the conversion of one differentiated cell type into another, and metaplasia the conversion of one tissue type into another. From the point of view of this entry, some metaplasias have a clinical significance because they predispose individuals to the development of cancer.

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Track 14: Gene therapy and stem cells

Gene therapy is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. Gene therapy could be a way to fix a genetic problem at its source. The polymers are either expressed as proteins, interfere with protein expression, or possibly correct genetic mutations. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery.

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Track 15: Tumour cell science:

An abnormal mass of tissue. Tumors are a classic sign of inflammation, and can be benign or malignant. Tomour usually reflect the kind of tissue they arise in. Treatment is also specific to the location and type of the tumor. Benign tumors can sometimes simply be ignored, cancerous tumors; options include chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery.

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Track 16: Reprogramming stem cells: computational biology

Computational Biology, sometimes referred to as bioinformatics, is the science of using biological data to develop algorithms and relations among various biological systems. Bioinformatics groups use computational methods to explore the molecular mechanisms underpinning stem cells. To accomplish this bioinformaticsdevelop and apply advanced analysis techniques that make it possible to dissect complex collections of data from a wide range of technologies and sources.

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The fields of stem cell biology and regenerative medicine research are fundamentally about understanding dynamic cellular processes such as development, reprogramming, repair, differentiation and the loss, acquisition or maintenance of pluripotency. In order to precisely decipher these processes at a molecular level, it is critical to identify and study key regulatory genes and transcriptional circuits. Modern high-throughput molecular profiling technologies provide a powerful approach to addressing these questions as they allow the profiling of tens of thousands of gene products in a single experiment. Whereas bioinformatics is used to interpret the information produced by such technologies.

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8th World Congress on Cell & Stem Cell Research

The success of the 7 Cell Science conferences series has given us the prospect to bring the gathering one more time for our 8thWorld Congress 2017 meet in Orlando, USA. Since its commencement in 2011 cell science series has perceived around 750 researchers of great potentials and outstanding research presentations around the globe. The awareness of stem cells and its application is increasing among the general population that also in parallel offers hope and add woes to the researchers of cell science due to the potential limitations experienced in the real-time.

Stem Cell Research-2017has the goal to fill the prevailing gaps in the transformation of this science of hope to promptly serve solutions to all in the need.World Congress 2017 will have an anticipated participation of 100-120 delegates from around the world to discuss the conference goal.

History of Stem cells Research

Stem cells have an interesting history, in the mid-1800s it was revealed that cells were basically the building blocks of life and that some cells had the ability to produce other cells. Efforts were made to fertilize mammalian eggs outside of the human body and in the early 1900s, it was discovered that some cells had the capacity to generate blood cells. In 1968, the first bone marrow transplant was achieved successfully to treat two siblings with severe combined immunodeficiency. Other significant events in stem cell research include:

1978: Stem cells were discovered in human cord blood 1981: First in vitro stem cell line developed from mice 1988: Embryonic stem cell lines created from a hamster 1995: First embryonic stem cell line derived from a primate 1997: Cloned lamb from stem cells 1997: Leukaemia origin found as haematopoietic stem cell, indicating possible proof of cancer stem cells

Funding in USA:

No federal law forever did embargo stem cell research in the United States, but only placed restrictions on funding and use, under Congress's power to spend. By executive order on March 9, 2009, President Barack Obama removed certain restrictions on federal funding for research involving new lines of humanembryonic stem cells. Prior to President Obama's executive order, federal funding was limited to non-embryonic stem cell research and embryonic stem cell research based uponembryonic stem celllines in existence prior to August 9, 2001. In 2011, a United States District Court "threw out a lawsuit that challenged the use of federal funds for embryonic stem cell research.

Members Associated with Stem Cell Research:

Discussion on Development, Regeneration, and Stem Cell Biology takes an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the fundamental question of how a single cell, the fertilized egg, ultimately produces a complex fully patterned adult organism, as well as the intimately related question of how adult structures regenerate. Stem cells play critical roles both during embryonic development and in later renewal and repair. More than 65 faculties in Philadelphia from both basic science and clinical departments in the Division of Biological Sciences belong to Development, Regeneration, and Stem Cell Biology. Their research uses traditional model species including nematode worms, fruit-flies, Arabidopsis, zebrafish, amphibians, chick and mouse as well as non-traditional model systems such as lampreys and cephalopods. Areas of research focus include stem cell biology, regeneration, developmental genetics, and cellular basis of development, developmental neurobiology, and evo-devo (Evolutionary developmental biology).

Stem Cell Market Value:

Worldwide many companies are developing and marketing specialized cell culture media, cell separation products, instruments and other reagents for life sciences research. We are providing a unique platform for the discussions between academia and business.

Global Tissue Engineering & Cell Therapy Market, By Region, 2009 2018

$Million

Why to attend???

Stem Cell Research-2017 could be an outstanding event that brings along a novel and International mixture of researchers, doctors, leading universities and stem cell analysis establishments creating the conference an ideal platform to share knowledge, adoptive collaborations across trade and world, and assess rising technologies across the world. World-renowned speakers, the most recent techniques, tactics, and the newest updates in cell science fields are assurances of this conference.

A Unique Opportunity for Advertisers and Sponsors at this International event:

http://stemcell.omicsgroup.com/sponsors.php

UAS Major Universities which deals with Stem Cell Research

University of Washington/Hutchinson Cancer Center

Oregon Stem Cell Center

University of California Davis

University of California San Francisco

University of California Berkeley

Stanford University

Mayo Clinic

Major Stem Cell Organization Worldwide:

Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research

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Stem Cell Conferences | Cell and Stem Cell Congress | Stem ...

You go to your doctorwith your symptoms, and you get an evaluation, maybe have a few tests run.

If you are lucky, youre on your way to a diagnosis and a path to feeling better. How much more personal does it get? In fact, much more. In theory, astonishingly more.

Most often today, your treatment plan doesnt have all that much to do with you specifically. Its identical to what doctors would hand over to essentially anyone with the same condition your neighbor, the hot dog vendor at Wrigley Field, or the prime minister of Bangladesh.

Thats because medicine as we know it revolves around standards of care, the best courses of prevention or treatment for the general population, or the average person on the street. With breast cancer, for example, those standards mean self-exams and mammograms after a set age and the usual chemotherapy to treat a tumor if one is found. If the first treatment doesnt work, doctors and patients move on to the next one and the next. Its trial and error, with life on the line.

Patients are not yet asking the question Is this therapy going to work for me? I look forward to the day patients do ask that question.

A growing contingent of researchers, some healthcare clinicians, and an increasing number of patients are calling for a more personalized approach aimed as much at preventing disease as it is at tailoring treatment once its there. Call it what you will personalized medicine, genomic medicine, precision medicine. Its an approach that emphasizes the ways in which your disease risks are unique and different, just like your other, more obvious characteristics. Those disease risks are based on the predispositions written into your genome at birth, combined with your lifestyle and environment. In the case of cancer, the disease has its own genetic makeup, lending each tumor a unique character with unique tendencies and vulnerabilities.

And perhaps there is, or soon will be, a drug or treatment or tailored combination of the two that will work better for you than it would for someone else.

The number of targeted therapies in the pipeline for all diseases is increasing dramatically, says J. Leonard Lichtenfeld, deputy chief medical officer for the American Cancer Society. Personalized medicine in the age of genomics means were living in dynamic times. The big question right now is How do we take all this new information were gathering and use it for the benefit of the patient?

In many cases, the current standard of care may be the safest, most sensible option, but its also one size fits all. Sometimes thats perfectly sufficient, but not always. It is in that not always category that personalized medicine is making the most headway.

A Decade of Advancement

Many doctors will tell you theyve been doing personalized, patient-centered medicine all along, and they do have a point. Wikipedia defines personalized medicine as a medical model that proposes the customization of healthcare with medical decisions, practices, and/or products being tailored to the individual patient. But the definition preferred by the National Human Genome Research Institute is more specific, maintaining that a personalized approach to medicine includes an individuals genetic profile to guide decisions made in regard to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Reaching that goal has been more than 20 years in the making, birthed from an ambitious plan to sequence the first reference human genome. By 2003, scientists had done it; for the first time, they had an essentially complete sequence and map of all the genes in the human body.

Probably at no time in the history of medical research, going back to the time of William Harvey and the circulation of blood, in the 1600s, has there been more potential and promise for discovery that will benefit mankind in terms of the health of the species as where we are right now as a result of the Human Genome Project, says Scott T. Weiss, scientific director at Partners HealthCare Center for Personalized Genetic Medicine at Harvard Medical School.

Advances in technology have since accelerated the pace of discovery and lowered the cost so much that scientists pushed on from that single reference genome to sequence the genomes of more than 1,000 individuals in all their variations. These days, individual patients and sometimes healthy people, too can have their personal genomes scanned or fully sequenced. This knowledge about the basic elements of human genomes and their differences, both common and rare, is central to the concept of personalized medicine. Its changing the field of medicine, even though many of us probably havent noticed any direct evidence of it at the family doctors office yet.

A 2013 survey by GfK, a global consumer research firm, found that just 27 percent of people interviewed had heard the term personalized medicine. Of those, only 4 percent understood what the phrase most often implies: medicine based on genomic makeup.

An Ounce of Prevention

There have been recent, high-profile examples: Angelina Jolie made headlines with a proactive double mastectomy last year after tests showed she carried BRCA1, the same genetic marker for breast cancer that her mother, who died from the disease, carried. The National Cancer Institute puts the risk of breast cancer for those carrying a BRCA1 mutation at 65 percent and the risk of ovarian cancer at 39 percent.

While its important to remember that genes are not destiny, they do provide information that can lead us to make more informed decisions about our health and healthcare, and, as in Jolies case, that can change the future.

If you get sick, knowing your genome or the molecular basis of your disease can be an important piece of evidence for doctors seeking the most favorable treatment plan for you. In the case of cancer, genetic tests could lead to successful drug treatment rather than radical surgery. For instance, melanoma can be BRAF positive, meaning the tumor has a specific gene mutation that sets it apart from other melanomas. Your lung cancer can be EGFR or ALK positive. Your colon tumor may be KRAS positive.

Increasingly, doctors will scan not just single genes or a handful, but also complete genomes. The challenge then will be figuring out what it all means and what to do next.

While personalized medicine is escalating and becoming more common, its still in its infancy, and there are not yet enough products on the market that have penetrated the consciousness of the average patient, says Edward Abrahams, president of the Washington, D.C.-based Personalized Medicine Coalition. Patients are not yet asking the question Is this therapy going to work for me? I look forward to the day patients do ask that question.

If you find the idea of personalized medicine more than a little overwhelming, youre not alone. It isnt easy to turn an approach to healthcare on its head.

I dont think anybody disagrees with the fact that we [patients] are different and we respond differently. But its hard to make changes, Abrahams says. You want to see evidence before youre willing to move away from one-size-fits-all traditional medicine. To change it, you have to show that what youre promising is an improvement.

Testing, Testing

While more evidence about the promise of personalized medicine is certainly called for, individual stories are already pointing the way. In 2005, Stephanie Haney, now 45, had a pain on her right side that wouldnt go away. It hurt when she coughed or sneezed. She was pregnant, so she didnt investigate the cause, assuming perhaps shed broken a rib.

Two years later, she was diagnosed with stage 4 lung cancer.

After undergoing chemotherapy, Haney began taking Tarceva (erlotinib) in 2008. But three years later, the drug was no longer keeping the tumors at bay. Prompted by friends and an insistent doctor, she had genetic testing on her tumors, which showed they were ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) positive. This gave her doctor a major clue as to which drugs were most likely to work (or not). Haney was able to start taking Xalkori (crizotinib), designed specifically for ALK-positive lung cancer tumors. She joined a clinical trial for Xalkori in Philadelphia, two and a half hours away. Three years later, her tumors were barely visible.

Haneys journey is emblematic of the ever-growing personalized medicine matrix, wherein spreadsheets will be filled with biomarkers for diseases, if not whole genome sequences, and treatments will be fast-tracked (like her Xalkori) for approval based on clinical trials designed for those who have certain biomarkers or genes.

Researchers have discovered more than 1,800 disease genes since the Human Genome Projects completion. There are now more than 2,000 genetic tests for human conditions and 350 biotechnology-based products currently in clinical trials.

Lung cancer treatment is one of the most advanced areas in terms of a personalized medicine approach, with several drugs approved by the FDA or in clinical trials for different lung cancer biomarkers. Unfortunately, but not unexpectedly, Haney found out last October that the cancer had moved to her brain, one of several places lung cancer is prone to migrate. Because Xalkori will not break the blood-brain barrier, she just started another trial drug, LDK378, to treat the brain tumor.

Caleb Nolan, 8, is on two basketball teams. Diagnosed with cystic fibrosis when he was 3 weeks old, he has spent much of his childhood in hospitals, taking many rounds of medicines each day. Like other cystic fibrosis patients, Caleb has a mutation in a gene called CFTR that causes mucus to clog the lungs and obstruct the pancreas so the body cant absorb food.

There are many different mutations of CFTR that lead to cystic fibrosis. Fortunately for Caleb, he has a mutation, G551D, found in 4 to 5 percent of cystic fibrosis patients, for which there is a treatment. Caleb is now on Kalydeco (ivacaftor), a genetically targeted treatment approved by the FDA in 2012 and the first such drug that treats an underlying cause of cystic fibrosis.

Shane Nolan, Calebs father and a UPS driver, will never forget delivering his sons first shipment to their house. Before Kalydeco, Caleb was on enzymes that allowed him to live with his condition, but life was difficult, and activities such as sports were limited.

With Kalydeco, Instead of the mucus building up, the medicine is thinning it, Shane says. Now his body naturally does this. The medicine is preventing damage from the CF. Caleb hasnt been in the hospital since hes been on it [almost two years]. Usually, once kids reach their late teens or early 20s, they have to get a lung transplant. This should prevent that.

The average lifespan of a person with cystic fibrosis is 37. Now, Caleb could die of old age instead of CF, Shane says.

Who Pays for This?

Caleb was lucky. His insurance paid for Kalydeco from the start. Jolie probably barely registered the $3,000 price tag on her genetic screening, although she did point out in a New York Times opinion piece that the price could be an obstacle for many.

When the FDA clearly ties a genetic mutation to a specific drug or treatment, insurers generally do cover the testing and treatment, says Bruce Quinn, senior health policy advisor at Foley Hoag LLP. If you have a family history that calls for it, insurance will pay for BRCA1 testing (in fact, the Affordable Care Act requires it). Where there is no such specific tie, insurance carriers have a judgment call to make.

Patients with cancer are more likely to have their tests covered. They have an interest in this because they dont want to prescribe drugs that wont work, Abrahams says. Insurance companies rightly want to see evidence that whatever they pay for works better than what were used to paying for. But thats a barrier to innovation.

When it comes to whole genome sequences, the uncertainties about outcomes are that much greater, but sequencing is getting cheaper all the time. In January, Illumina, a genetic-sequencing company based in San Diego, announced it had a new system that brought the cost for sequencing a human genome down to less than $1,000. (Thats cheaper than Jolies single BRCA1 test.) This doesnt put a sequencer in your local doctors office nor does it cover the cost of interpreting those results but it does make it feasible for clinicians and researchers to gather the evidence needed to push personalized medicine over the tipping point.

The D.C.-based Personalized Medicine Coalition has made defining levels of evidence that will be acceptable to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and private insurers a top priority. If a treatment or drug is outside medical guidelines, reimbursement is unlikely.

Medicine needs to be evidence-based, Abrahams says. Reimbursement is right up there with research in terms of priorities.

Who Owns the Data?

With all this data come new questions and ethical and practical challenges about privacy, access, ownership, and more. In many cases, research or clinical trial participants arent given their results at all. Companies like Myriad Genetics, the primary provider in the United States of clinical BRCA1 testing, have returned individual results to doctors and patients, of course, but Myriad has kept the bulk of its data as a trade secret.

Weiss, of Harvard Medical School, says patients are and always will be the rightful owners of their personal genetic data.

This is confidential patient data, he says. It can be used for medical research, but its highly unlikely that your identity will be disclosed to some commercial third party in any identifiable way. Academic medical centers may partner with pharmaceutical companies, using their genomic data, but will do it in an anonymous way and only if the patient consents. The patient is going to be in control of what they do here, as they should be.

Laws such as HIPPA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) and parts of the Affordable Care Act protect the privacy of personal health information. The passage of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) in 2008 was considered a major win, too, as it bars employers and health insurers from using genetic information or family history. Still, many people worry about such personal and sensitive information being out there. And genomic data is at the core of personalized medicine.

You cant do personalized medicine when it comes to genomics without electronic medical records and without the ability to deliver genomic content to providers at their desktop, Weiss says. Were not really talking about the doctor-patient relationship here. Were talking about the mechanics of how you deliver huge amounts of data to clinicians in the office and at the bedside.

Medicine is getting there slowly but surely. The Obama administration began moving our healthcare system toward electronic records in the summer of 2009. Now more than 50 percent of medical records are available in electronic form.

We need to get to 100 percent, and just having an electronic medical record isnt enough, Weiss says. We still have to have software focused on the genomic content delivery to the caregiver.

Ideally, doctors could tap into a single, large database filled with anonymous genetic information biomarkers tied to patient demographics tied to specific drugs and treatments to help doctors make decisions about each individuals medical path. But getting there is sure to be a long and bumpy ride, with plenty of detours along the way.

For Daryl Pritchard, director of policy research at the National Pharmaceutical Council, the end game is clear: The use of that information whether by a company or by a group of doctors or a provider group is ultimately going to be advantageous to treating the condition in question going forward. These things will work.

Talk to Your Doctor

Starting with a good family history is a smart and simple way to begin a personalized medicine discussion with your doctor, says Geoffrey Ginsburg, director of the Center for Personalized and Precision Medicine at Duke University Medical Center, although it doesnt happen often enough. (Ginsburg is also editor-at-large of Genome magazine.) While youre at it, he suggests asking about whether any genetic tests are useful for regulating a dose of a drug, an approach known as pharmacogenomics.

Abrahams recommends asking your doctor the following question: Do you have the expectation that this drug will work for me?

According to Randy Burkholder, the vice president of policy and research for Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), a Washington, D.C.-based trade group representing American biopharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, the most important thing is not being afraid to ask your doctor questions.

It can be a hard thing to do sometimes, especially when youre seeing a diagnosis, he says. Asking questions allows you to work with your doctor. The volume of information we can know is so much greater now. Doctors are doing a great job, but they cant be expected to know everything for every patient. As a patient, you shouldnt feel like youre imposing. You should feel like youre helping.

Where Is Personalized MedicineHelping Most?

Personalized medicines greatest strides have been in cancer. Consider these statistics on the percent of tumors containing genetic mutations that could be targeted by drugs, as reported by the Wall Street Journal in 2011:

Cancer is a genetic disease, Ginsburg says. In many ways, it is the poster child for a disease that has used personalized medicine strategies. It has used them in everything from risk assessment in healthy people from screening, diagnosis, and prognosis to selecting therapies based on genetics and the biology of the tumor.

HIV/AIDS is another area where the principles of personalized medicine have made great progress. The virus mutates differently in each patient, Abrahams says. Now we can understand the viral load and analyze it, then prescribe the right cocktail of medicine to treat it. This is the progress weve seen taking AIDS from a death sentence to a chronic condition. But thats understanding the virus, not the person.

Other diseases are clearly moving toward more comprehensive personalized medicine strategies, too, including heart disease, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and infectious diseases. Also, rare disease diagnosis is now becoming more amenable to personalized medicine strategies through genomics, Ginsburg says.

The Future of Personalized Medicine

Abrahams is optimistic about the progress now being made, particularly when it comes to complex chronic diseases.

At some point, and I dont know whether that will be 10 or 15 years from now, we will reach that tipping point where all medicines are linked to diagnostics, and well move out of the one-size-fits-all paradigm, he says. If we have good answers today with the one-size-fits-all model, I dont think that will change. But most patients are unaware of the limits of our medical knowledge.

Once the evidence is in, many pieces will need to fall into place before personalized medicine becomes mainstream. Payment systems must be flexible enough to account for individual treatment plans based on genetics and other indicators. Regulatory guidelines must adapt to the idea that genetic diagnostics and targeted drugs go together in a treatment plan. Medical schools must include personalized medicine in their curricula. Patient interest and demand are essential, too.

While some patients may be seeing the impact of personalized medicine in some corners already, patient outcomes with todays medicine show plenty of room for improvement. Consider patients with depression, 38 percent of whom do not respond to the first drug they are prescribed. Or patients with asthma, of whom 40 percent do not respond to the most commonly prescribed drugs. Or type 2 diabetes (43 percent), arthritis (50 percent), and Alzheimers disease (70 percent).

Education will be key. Knowing that tailored treatments are or may be available for various diseases is half the battle. Abrahams looks forward to the day when both patients and doctors will advocate for personalized medicine.

One day, patients will say, Im not an average patient. I am who I am. You need to understand who I am before you prescribe whatever treatment you plan to prescribe, he says. When that day comes, well no longer [have to] talk about personalized medicine.

Well know weve arrived when personalized and genomic medicine simply is medicine.

Kendall Morgan contributed to this report.

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Genome | What Is Personalized Medicine

Integrative medicine combines modern medical technologies with traditional natural approaches. Medical and Naturopathic doctors at Care Practice work together to teach our patients to use diet, exercise, lifestyle changes and cutting edge natural and pharmaceutical therapies to enhance their bodies ability to heal. Our integrative doctors view the patient as a complex, interrelated system, with unique lifestyle and environmental influences. We build comprehensive treatment plans that blend modern medical science with traditional natural medical approaches to treat disease and restore optimal health.

Integrative medicine combine the wisdom of nature with the rigors of modern science. Integrative medicine focuses on holistic, proactive prevention and comprehensive diagnosis and treatment. By using protocols that minimize the risk of harm, our integrative doctors help facilitate the bodys inherent ability to restore and maintain optimal health. It is the physicians role to identify and remove barriers to good health by helping to create a healing internal and external environment.

We treat all medical conditions and provide both individual and family healthcare. Among the most common ailments we treat are allergies, chronic pain, digestive issues, hormonal imbalances, obesity, respiratory conditions, heart disease, fertility problems, menopause, adrenal fatigue, cancer, lyme disease, fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. We have extensive experience in the treatment of acute and chronic illness with vitamin and mineral supplements, herbal remedies, nutritional counseling, meditation, intravenous (IV) nutrients, and physical medicines such as hydrotherapy, craniosacral therapy and spinal manipulation.

Our Integrative doctors will take time with you. During your first appointment, your doctor will take your health history, find out about your diet, stress levels, and discuss why youre here. We will perform an examination and may order comprehensive diagnostic tests. Our physicians stay up-to-date on the latest scientific research and incorporate this evidence into your treatments. Our integrative doctors will work with you to set up a customized health management strategy.

Your first visit may last one hour and follow-up visits range from 15 to 60 minutes, depending on the severity of your condition. Our physicians take sufficient time to ask questions and understand the your health goals. We also take time to gather information, do appropriate examination and teach you about managing your condition and improving your health. Our integrative medicine approach to health care uses the least invasive therapies necessary to treat the root cause of illness, removes obstacles to recovery, and facilitates your bodys innate ability to heal through a variety of health promoting options.

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Care Practice | Integrative Medicine - San Francisco, Bay Area

While at St. Edwards University in Austin, TX, I was awarded a Presidential Award in my last year as an undergraduate. I have a doctorate in microbiology, and I have worked with Ebola and Marburg viruses as a researcher at the Texas Biomedical Research Institute in San Antonio, TX, under the direction of Jean L. Patterson. In 2013, I published two peer-reviewed articles on my virus research.

When working with students, my main goal is to challenge them to become problem solvers. Facts in all fields of study are in continuous evolution, and students therefore must understand that texts provide the basis for future discovery. As an educator, I require my students to think about contemporary challenges in science which in turn would help them understand how they too can become contributors to scientific thought and understanding.

Martin Sulkanen, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Physics

My Ph.D. in physics from Cornell University led me to a post-doctoral fellowship at Los Alamos National Laboratory, and a career in astrophysics with companies and organizations such as NASA Marshall Flight Center, Michigan Research and Development Center, and Leidos, Inc. Because of my lifelong fascination with the profound consequences of the basic principles of physics on our universe, I have studied binary star systems, galactic radio jets, and worked on NASAs Chandra X-Ray Observatory Project Science Team.

As a professor of physics and mathematics, I encourage my students to develop an intuitive understanding for physics to guide the understanding of further mathematical analysis: dont get lost in the equations! My students have gone on to a variety of careers in places such as at Yale University, the International Space Station and the the US Patent & Trademark Office.

Yuhui Lu, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Chemistry

The study of chemistry is necessary for students who want to pursue a career in natural science, medical science, and engineering. It also helps liberal art students to improve their reasoning skills, understand scientific methodology, and gain deeper insight between human-nature relationships. I challenge all my students, regardless of background, to engage in logic, diligence, and self-discipline.

I have earned Ph.D.s in both chemistry and electrical engineering. I use this combination of disciplines to research nanoelectronics and single molecular devices with colleagues at the University of Notre Dame. I have also been a principal investigator of grants with the National Science Foundation, and undergraduate research supervisor. I am currently pursuing a variety of research opportunities for Holy Cross students.

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Biotechnology - Holy Cross College Notre Dame, Indiana

Find solutions for a better world at the NSLC on Biotechnology. ';

The National Student Leadership Conference has a unique partnership with American University to offer college credit for our high school summer programs. The American University is distinguished as a premier global university and known for turning ideas into action and action into service. As a result of this NSLC/AU alliance, students attending the NSLCs summer programs for high school students have the opportunity to take college credit classes taught by American University faculty at all NSLC locations. This credit option enhances your education within the framework of your program experience, without interrupting NSLC activities.

Read more about earning college credit through your NSLC program.

Visit research labs Learn from scientists, doctors and engineers working in advanced research labs during exclusive hands-on tours.

Hands-on experiments Learn the basics of DNA manipulation during intensive biotech experiments.

Explore cutting-edge technologies used in the fields of medicine, energy production, agriculture, and bioengineering.

While at the NSLC, you will have the opportunity to step into the lab and learn hands-on the skills used in the field of biotechnology to manipulate DNA and create products like better medicines and cleaner fuels.

Lab experiences will include:

While at the NSLC on Biotechnology program, you will meet with and learn from leaders in the biotechnology field. In past years, guest speakers have included:

Dr. Francis S. Collins Director, National Institutes of Health

Dr. Ben Busby Computational Biology Branch, National Center for Biotechnology Information

Dr. Eric D. Green Director, National Human Genome Research Institute (NIH)

Dean Stephen Carr Associate Dean of Undergraduate Engineering, Northwestern University

Dr. Jon R. Lorsch Director, National Insitute of General Medical Sciences

Dr. Anthony S. Fauci Director, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH)

An important part of the NSLCs Biotechnology youth leadership program is seeing the sites around some of our nations greatest cities. These trips are designed as both sightseeing tours and exclusive educational trips specifically tailored to the area of Biotechnology:

At the heart of each of our youth leadership programs is a curriculum designed to build concrete leadership skills that will help you succeed. From the beginning of your program you will learn to work as a team during an exciting Ropes Challenge Course. Interactive lectures and small-group workshops will give you an opportunity to build upon your strengths and minimize your weaknesses.

Leadership topics tailored to the Biotechnology program include:

Tuition

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Your NSLC tuition is all-inclusive. Your tuition covers course materials, housing, on-campus meals, social events and transportation throughout your program.

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Program tuition is all-inclusive. It covers course materials, housing, on-campus meals, social events and transportation in air-conditioned motor coaches throughout the program. Each student is responsible for the cost of travel to and from the program as well as individual spending money.

Cancellation Fees and Refund Policy All cancellations must be submitted in writing (email is acceptable). The following cancellation fees apply to all NSLC enrollments:

NSLC will refund all funds minus the cancellation fee listed above. No refunds will be given after May 16th, 2016. Student Protection Plan fees for accepted students are non-refundable.

Instead of cancelling, you may elect to apply your total payments toward a program next year. If so, you will be enrolled in our 2017 Pre-Registration and sent an email in the fall of 2016 to select the program/session you wish to attend. Note: If you choose to cancel your enrollment and not attend a 2017 program, the cancellation fees above will still apply.

Note: If an application is rejected or if space in the program is not available, all deposits/payments will be refunded in full.

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Fundraising is a great way to raise funds to contribute toward your NSLC program tuition while also forging relationships with leaders in your community.

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Pros And Cons in Research

The debate of the pros and cons of stem cell research clearly illustrate the difficult ethics evaluations researchers sometimes must do.

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All scientists must consider whether the positive effects from their research are likely to be significantly higher than the negative effects.

Stem Cells are crucial to develop organisms. They are nonspecialized cells which have the potential to create other types of specific cells, such as blood-, brain-, tissue- or muscle-cells.

Stem cells are in all of our body and lives, but are far more potent in a fetus (also spelled foetus, ftus, faetus, or ftus) than in an adult body.

Some types of stem cells may be able to create all other cells in the body. Others have the potential to repair or replace damaged tissue or cells.

Embryonic Stem Cells are developed from a female egg after it is fertilized by sperm. The process takes 4-5 days.

Stem cell research is used for investigation of basic cells which develop organisms. The cells are grown in laboratories where tests are carried out to investigate fundamental properties of the cells.

There are stem cells in the both placenta and blood contained in the placenta. Also the primary source of stem cells is from blastocysts. These are fertilized human eggs that were not implanted into a woman.

The controversy surrounding stem cell research led to an intense debate about ethics. Up until the recent years, the research method mainly focused on Embryonic Stem Cells, which involves taking tissue from an aborted embryo to get proper material to study. This is typically done just days after conception or between the 5th and 9th week.

Since then, researchers have moved on to more ethical study methods, such as Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS). iPS are artificially derived from a non-pluripotent cell, such as adult somatic cells.

This is probably an important advancement in stem cell research, since it allows researchers to obtain pluripotent stem cells, which are important in research, without the controversial use of embryos.

There were two main issues concerning stem cell research with both pros and cons:

The first issue is really not just about stem cell research, as it may be applied to most research about human health.

Since 2007, the second point, concerns about the methods involved, has been less debated, because of scientific developments such as iPS.

As you will most probably notice, the following arguments are not exclusively in use when talking about stem cell research.

Stem cell research can potentially help treat a range of medical problems. It could lead humanity closer to better treatment and possibly cure a number of diseases:

Better treatment of these diseases could also give significant social benefits for individuals and economic gains for society

The controversy regarding the method involved was much tenser when researchers used Embryonic Stem Cells as their main method for stem cell research.

DISCLAIMER: These points are based on the old debate about the methods of stem cells research, from before 2007. Since then, scientists have moved on to use more ethical methods for stem cell research, such as iPS. This section serves as an illustration of the difficult evaluations researchers may have to analyze.

The stem cell-research is an example of the, sometimes difficult, cost-benefit analysis in ethics which scientists need to do. Even though many issues regarding the ethics of stem cell research have now been solved, it serves as a valuable example of ethical cost-benefit analysis.

The previously heated debate seems to have lead to new solutions which makes both sides happier.

Stem Cell pros and cons had to be valued carefully, for a number of reasons.

When you are planning a research project, ethics must always be considered. If you cannot defend a study ethically, you should not and will not be allowed to conduct it. You cannot defend a study ethically unless the presumed cost is lower than expected benefits. The analysis needs to include human/animal discomfort/risks, environmental issues, material costs/benefits, economy etc.

Why was the debate regarding the stem cell research so intense?

First, it was a matter of life - something impossible to measure. And in this case, researchers had to do exactly that: measure life against life.

Both an abortion and someone dying, suffering from a possible curable disease, is a tragedy. Which have the highest value? Does a big breakthrough in the research justify the use of the method in the present?

Would the benefits of studying abortions outweigh the costs? The choice was subjective: Nobody knows all the risks or all the possible outcomes, so we had to value it with our perception of the outcome. Perception is influenced by our individual feelings, morals and knowledge about the issue.

Second, at the time we did not know whether the research was necessary and sufficient to give us the mentioned health benefits.

Third, other consequences of the research are uncertain. Could the research be misused in the future or not? We simply do not know. All knowledge acquired, within research or other arenas, may be used for evil causes in the future - it is impossible to know.

The Stem cell research-debate is an example on how people value various aspects differently. It is also an example of how critics and debate can lead to significant improvements for both sides.

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Stem Cell Research - Pros and Cons - Explorable.com

You will have a low white blood cell count after your treatment. This means you are more at risk of getting an infection. You are likely to get an infection from the normally harmless bacteria we all have in our digestive systems and on our skin.

To try to stop this from happening your nurse may give you tablets called gut sterilisers (antibiotics) and mouthwashes. And they will encourage you to have a shower each day.

You are also at risk of infection from food. The nurses on the ward will tell you and your relatives about the food you can and can't eat. The rules vary from hospital to hospital but you may be told that

Your room will be thoroughly cleaned every day. Your visitors will be asked to wash their hands before they come into your room. They may also have to wear disposable gloves and aprons. Visitors with coughs and colds are not allowed. Some hospitals don't allow you to have plants or flowers in your room because bacteria and fungi can grow in the soil or water, and may cause infection.

Even with all these precautions, most people do get an infection at some point and need to have antibiotics. You can help yourself by trying to do your mouth care properly and getting up to shower and have your bed changed even on the days you don't feel too good.

After a transplant you will have lost immunity to diseases you were vaccinated against as a child. The team caring for you will advise you about the immunisations you need and when. You should only have inactivated immunisations and not live ones. To lower the risk of you getting any of these infections it is important that all your family have the flu vaccine and any children have all their immunisations.

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Side effects of bone marrow and stem cell transplants ...

Every day sick patients are asking how canstem cell therapy help them now. These patients are most likely desperate for any help, as the current medicine or prognosis just isnt cutting it. And while one daythere may be aviableanswer ofa yes, right now unfortunately, the field isjust not there yet. But, others do not share this view and are in fact offering to cure peoples diseases with stem cell treatments, a phenomenon known as stem cell tourism as most cases occur outside this country. Below we discuss a little about this.

What are stem cell treatments?

As was mentioned, stem cell treatments have been developed as a way to intervene in the development of and potentially treat a whole host of illnesses and physical maladies. These include baldness, missing teeth, and blindness, as well as degenerative illnesses like Parkinsons disease, type 1 diabetes mellitus, heart failure, and even cancer.

The majority of the advertised stem cell treatments utilize adult stem cells, normally harvested from the patient, and these stem cells are introduced into the damaged part of the body. The stem cells then self-renew within the damaged part, promoting growth of new tissues and subsequently replacing the diseased tissues.

Since the stem cells have been harvested from the body of the patient, theoretically, the odds of rejection or fatal side effects are very minimal. Because this is the case, stem cell treatments essentially provide a less invasive, more viable, and more sustainable therapeutic or treatment approach than similar intervention methods like organ transplantation.

Most stem cell treatments are still in the research phase.

Stem cell treatment clinics have been mushrooming everywhere. They are manifold in medical tourism centers in India, China, Ukraine, and Mexico. Even in the United States, where the oversight of the Food and Drug Administration or FDA is strict, stem cell treatment centers operate.

But while this is the case, it is crucial to keep in mind that most stem cell treatments, with the exception of bone marrow transplantation, are still in the preliminary research stages. In fact, studies of these treatments remain so new that finding published results is next to impossible.

Countries like China that study stem cell treatments on a clinical level do not have adequate and up-to-medical-standard documentation processes either, further putting the public in the dark when it comes to stem cell treatments efficacy and dangers.

There are several potential risks of stem cell treatments.

Even aside from the preliminary research phases and lack of published results, stem cell treatments have many risks. And the worst part is studies on these risks, as on the treatments efficacy, are yet to be explored by the medical community.

For instance, in the case of cancer, there is the danger of further aggravating the progress of the disease. Bear in mind that these treatments involve the introduction of stem cells into the diseased part of the body. Sure, the stem cells will most likely be harvested from the same patient and thus not foreign to the recipients body. However, factors such as uncontrolled growth may still occur and therefore further worsen the disease instead of treat it.

Another danger is the unchecked use of the types of stem cells to be administered. In countries without supervision and regulation of these types of intervention strategies, the use of stem cells harvested from sheep and sharks has been reported for treating human patients; an obviously bad situation.

Think twice before choosing stem cell treatments.

While stem cell treatment clinics are popping up all over most of these are scammers who prey on the desperately ill. Another sector has been cropping up offering stem cell treatments for cosmetic purposes as well. With promises of efficient and unfailing treatments, may they be for cosmetics, mild physical maladies, or serious terminal cases, there is no doubt that these treatments can sometimes be tempting to take.

But bear in mind that stem cell treatmentsthe legitimate ones, that isare mostly in the preliminary research stages. Because of this, you wont really be sure whether the treatment you obtain will work or not. And remember, if sounds to good to be true, it probably is. If there was a miracle treatment out there that really does cure horrible diseases, dont you think every sick patient would be getting it done and being healed? For more information, please visit this website put together by the international society for stem cell research: http://www.closerlookatstemcells.org/

If you enjoyed this post, please consider subscribing below to our monthly newsletter through which we provide stem cell scientists information on the most current research topics and tools to help them constantly improve their stem cell culture experience.

To Successful Research, StemCultures

Information for scientists by scientists on all things related to stem cell growth including stem cell culture, culture medium, tissue culture, fibroblast growth factor (fgf2) and more.

Note: StemCultures facilitates posting on this blog, but the views and accounts expressed herein are those of the author(s) or interviewee(s) and not the views or accounts ofStemCultures its officers or directors whose views and accounts may or may not be similar or identical. StemCultures, its officers and directors do not express any opinion regarding any product or service by virtue of reference to such product or service in this blog.

Read the original post:
Risks of Stem Cell Treatments - StemCultures

The neuro lectures are longer than the rest of the videos here at OphthoBook. Thats because there is a lot of conceptual theories involved, and I wanted to slow down and walk through this material at a managable rate. To ease the pain of learning neurology, Ive broken the lecture into two seperate parts. Enjoy!

Neuro-Ophathalmology Video Part 1

Hi Dr Tim,

Youre amazing, these videos are tops. Youll be happy to know you have quite a following among med students in sunny Queensland Australia.

Just noticed ? small typo at 24.30 neuro video 2 (Adies syndrome). PSNS constricts so with Adies pupil should dilate not quite clear on the slide but youre talking about dilated pupils so Im sure anyone whos listening would get your drift (probably just a good way to check were still thinking, eh?)

Thank you so much for your hard work. Youve put together a great resource.

Cheers, Helen

Hey these videos are great! you are an amazing techer

picked up a little error in the 2nd neuro video

the slide on Adies pupil says that the pupil would be constricted when it should say it would be dilated. It is however correctly described in the audio.

Thanks for these videos

View post:
Neuro-Ophthalmology Lecture 1 - ophthobook.com

New section started specially for students (Sep 2007) All useful study materials will be found there

As we have learnt that many students are using our website, we are just starting a students section. There you will find this and other documents of special value for writing your reports and theses.

What is Genetic Engineering?A simple introduction

This text is written so that even you who have forgotten much of what you may have learned about genetics will understand it. Therefore, the description is as simple as possible (some details of minor importance have been omitted or simplified).

If you want a very brief overview, go to "A first introduction to genetic engineering".

If you only want to rapidly get an idea of the great difference between mating and genetic engineering, see the "at a glance" illustration (elementary level)

Contents

1. The hereditary substance

The hereditary substance, DNA is what is manipulated by Genetic Engineering, below called GE.

DNA contains a complete set of information determining the structure and function of a living organism, be it a bacterium, a plant or a human being. DNA constitutes the genes, which in turn are found in the chromosomes in the cell nucleus.

For schematic picture of the spiral-formed DNA-moleculse click here: DNA

DNA is a very long string of "code words", arranged in an orderly sequence. It contains the instructions for creating all the proteins in the body.

Proteins are truly remarkable molecules. They can have many different properties. All the various tissues in the body are mainly made of proteins. Likewise all kinds of regulatory substances like enzymes, hormones and signal substances. There are many other proteins like for example different substances protecting from infection like antibodies.

The properties of a protein are entirely decided by its form, which is decided by the sequence of its building blocks, the amino acids. The set of code words required to describe one protein is called a "gene"

The DNA-protein system is an ingeniously simple and extremely powerful solution for creating all kinds of biological properties and structures. Just by varying the sequence of code words in the DNA, innumerable variations of proteins with very disparate properties can be obtained, sufficient to generate the enormous variety of biological life. For more about it, see "The cell - a miracle of cooperation"[EL]

If you want to know more about DNA, you could look up:

2. Mating - natural recombination of hereditary information

Through mating, the DNA of two parents is combined.

This can be described in a simplified way like this:

In plants and animals, the DNA is not just one long string of "codewords". It is divided into a set of strings called chromosomes. Commonly, each cell has a double set of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father.

In the germinal cells (the cells involved in mating), however, there is just one set. In mating, the set of the mother and father join together to create an embryonic cell with a double set of chromosomes. This embryonic cell divides into two identical copies. These divide in turn. In this way the whole organism will come to contain identical sets of chromosomes (the reason that the tissues have different properties in different parts of the grown up body is that different genes are active in them).

Mating summarized in a simple illustration

(The DNA of plants and animals contains hundreds of millions of "code syllables". To represent the complete set of information, each circle below would correspond to about 30 million code syllables. In the illustration below, each circle represents 300 code syllables. One code word, corresponding to one amino acid, contains three code syllables. One gene contains at an average about 1000 code words. The genes are about 3% of all DNA)

(The names of the colors have been written to simplify for those with color blindness)

A DNA string (part of a chromosome) in the germ cell of the mother (green):

The corresponding DNA string in the germ cell of the father (blue) :

(The syllables A and Z are just symbolical to mark the beginning and end of the two corresponding DNA strings).

Through mating, the strings are combined to create the DNA of the body cells:

The combined DNA in the offspring (one green and one blue string):

So in mating, there occurs no manipulation of the natural and orderly sequence of code words and sets of code words, the genes.

3. Genetic engineering, an artificial manipulation of genes

In genetic engineering, one gene or most commonly, a set of a few genes is taken out of the DNA of one organism and inserted into the DNA of another organism. This we call the "insertion package" illustrated in red:

Insertion package (red):

o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o

This insertion package is inserted into the DNA of the recipient organism.

DNA of the recipient before insertion:

There is no way to make a gene insert in a predetermined location. So the insertion is completely haphazard. Below the insertion package (red) has happened to become inserted in the chromosome string stemming from the mother (green):

DNA of the recipient after insertion:

This means that the sequential order of the genetic code of the mother string has been disrupted by a sequence of codes that are completely out of place. This may have several serious consequences as you find more about in "Is Genetic Engineering a variety of breeding?"[ML].

4. The difference between mating and genetic engineering at a glance

In mating a chromosome from the mother, o-o-o-o (green ) is combined with a chromosome of the father, o-o-o-o (blue). The sequence of DNA "code words" in each chromosome remains unchanged. And the chromosomes remain stable. The mating mechanism has been developed over billions of years and yields stable and reliable results.

Mating:

Genetic engineering:

In genetic engineering, a set of foreign genes, o-o-o-o (red) is inserted haphazardly in the midst of the sequence of DNA "code words" (in this case in the DNA inherited from the mother [green])). The insertion disrupts the ordinary command code sequence in the DNA. This disruption may disturb the functioning of the cell in unpredictable and potentially hazardous ways. The insertion may make the chromosome unstable in an unpredictable way.

A second fundamental difference is that, in genetic engineering, special constructs of genetic material derived from viruses and bacteria are added to the "desired gene". These constructs don't exist in natural food. They are needed for three major purposes:

These constructs may cause trouble of various kinds. See e.g.:

For more about how these constructs work, see: "How are genes engineered" [ML] Explains the technique of Genetic Engineering.

The key assumption of genetic engineering is that you can "tailor" organisms by adding genes with desirable properties. But science has found that genes don't work as isolated carriers of properties. Instead the effects of every gene is the outcome of interaction with its environment. The situation is succinctly summarized by Dr Craig Venter:

"In everyday language the talk is about a gene for this and a gene for that. We are now finding that that is rarely so. The number of genes that work in that way can almost be counted on your fingers, because we are just not hard-wired in that way."

"You cannot define the function of genes without defining the influence of the environment. The notion that one gene equals one disease, or that one gene produces one key protein, is flying out of the window."

Dr. J. Craig Venter, Time's Scientist of the year (2000). President of the Celera Corporation. Dr. Venter is recognized as one of the two most important scientists in the worldwide effort to map the human genome.

Source: Times, Monday February 12, 2001 "Why you can't judge a man by his genes" http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/0,,2-82213,00.html

This is further explained in "The new understanding of genes" [ML].

Conclusion

So technically, genetic engineering is an unnatural insertion of a foreign sequence of genetic codes in the midst of the orderly sequence of genetic codes of the recipient, developed through millions of years. In addition, powerful artificial genetic constructs are added with potentially problematic effects. This is a profound intervention with unpredictable consequences:

"Up to now, living organisms have evolved very slowly, and new forms have had plenty of time to settle in. Now whole proteins will be transposed overnight into wholly new associations, with consequences no one can foretell, either for the host organism, or their neighbors.... going ahead in this direction may be not only unwise, but dangerous. Potentially, it could breed new animal and plant diseases, new sources of cancer, novel epidemics."

Dr. George Wald. Nobel Laureate in Medicine 1967. Higgins Professor of Biology, Harvard University. (From: 'The Case against Genetic Engineering' by George Wald, in The Recombinant DNA Debate, Jackson and Stich, Eds. P. 127-128. ; Reprinted from The Sciences, Sept./Oct. 1976 issue)

To Students Section

See more here:
What is Genetic Engineering? - An elementary introduction ...

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Guidelines for Preventing Infectious Complications among ...

Apex Eye is a Leading Ophthalmology Group Offering Cataract Surgery, Glaucoma Treatment, Retinal Surgery, Diabetic Eye Care, and Other Advanced Eye Health Services in Cincinnati, OH, and Surrounding Areas

Your vision is crucial for your overall well-being. With that in mind, having eye doctors who are as passionate about providing exceptional eye care as you are about maintaining your eye health is a prescription for success. If you reside in Cincinnati, Ohio, or a surrounding area, youll find that level of commitment from the professionals at Apex Eye. Were a leading group practice of board-certified ophthalmologists, fellowship-trained eye specialists for cornea, retina, glaucoma and oculoplastics, licensed optometrists, and knowledgeable support staff. Our team shares a passion for excellence in eye care and dedication to delivering exceptional patient care. We continually strive to provide the best possible medical and surgical eye care for our patients in a pleasant, caring environment. Apex Eye has eight convenient locations throughout the Greater Cincinnati, OH, area for convenient, easy access to our eye doctors and eye care specialists. Set your sights higher with Apex Eye, where your vision is our top priority.

At Apex Eye, we care for all aspects of our patients eyes, including all types of eye diseases and visual problems. From offering comprehensive eye exams to diagnosing and treating patients with cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other sight-threatening conditions, we are committed to providing the highest quality care. Our ophthalmologists and eye specialists also treat other common eye problems like eye infections, allergies, dry eyes, blurry vision, and much more. We provide a full range of surgical procedures, including cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, cosmetic and reconstructive surgery, corneal surgery, and laser vision correction. Whatever your eye care needs might be, Apex Eye is committed to working with you to provide thorough, professional care to help you preserve and enhance your eye health and vision.

While the caring and friendly staff at Apex Eye has the expertise necessary to diagnose and treat a wide range of eye problems and conditions, there is further value in choosing our team to provide all of your for eye care needs. In addition to offering comprehensive eye health services to residents of Cincinnati, Ohio, and the surrounding area, we are very involved in advancing the field of ophthalmology. We take an active role in conducting scientific research on new medications, therapies, and treatments. Not only does this research contribute to medical breakthroughs and advances for eye health and vision, but our patients also benefit by having access to leading-edge treatments that may not be generally available.

If you are dealing with an issue in one or both of your eyes, your sight is compromised or threatened, you want to know more about the advanced eye care we provide to the residents of Cincinnati, OH, or you just want to be proactive in maintaining your eye health, schedule an appointment at the Apex Eye location nearest you. We are the eye doctors you can trust for convenient, comprehensive, and caring eye care services.

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Ophthalmology Cincinnati OH | Eye Doctors | Eye Specialists

Contact: (0191) 241 8600 - Dr David Bourn, Head of Laboratory, Molecular Genetics

The molecular laboratory service provides genetic diagnosis for those families suffering from inherited conditions caused by mutation of specific single genes.Testing is performed using a variety of DNA analysis techniques to identify causative mutations or to track defective genes through families.

The Molecular Genetics Laboratory operates within the Professional Guidelines of the Clinical Molecular Genetics Society (CMGS).

The laboratory is accredited by Clinical Pathology Accreditation

Clinical scientists and MLSO staff are State Registered with the Health Professions Council after the required period of training.

The Molecular Genetics Laboratory participates in the following external quality assurance schemes:

Northern Genetics Service Institute of Genetic Medicine Central Parkway Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ

Tel: 0191 241 8600

The laboratory operates Monday to Friday between the hours of 08.30 and 17.00.For the receipt and analysis of very urgent samples outside these hours, please make special arrangements with the laboratory.

Head of Laboratory

Dr David Bourn

telephone: 0191 241 8600

Read the rest here:
Newcastle Hospitals - Molecular Genetics

The immune system never restsits cells constantly patrol the circulation. Without the immune system, the body would be overwhelmed with infections. With it, blood transfusions must be performed with great care.

If incompatible blood is given in a transfusion, the donor cells are treated as if they were foreign invaders, and the patient's immune system attacks them accordingly. Not only is the blood transfusion rendered useless, but a potentially massive activation of the immune system and clotting system can cause shock, kidney failure, circulatory collapse, and death.

This chapter discusses the causes of transfusion reactions and how the hazards of blood transfusions are minimized.

Many of the adverse effects of blood transfusions are mediated by the recipient's immune system. In general, the formation of this and other immune responses occur in three stages:

the immune system detects foreign material (antigen)

the immune system processes the antigen

the immune system mounts a response to remove the antigen from the body

The immune response varies tremendously, depending on the individual (the health of his or her immune system and genetic factors) and the antigen (how common it is and how "provocative" it is to the immune system).

The red blood cells (RBCs) from one person may enter into the circulation of another person in two different ways, either by a blood transfusion or by pregnancy. The RBCs will appear foreign if they contain antigens that are not found on the patient's own RBCs.

When the macrophage encounters an antigen, it engulfs it, digests it, and then presents the antigenic fragments on its cell surface together with MHCII (Major Histocompatibility Complex II).

A T helper cell binds to the antigen/MHCII on the macrophage, and the two cells interact. The macrophage secretes cytokines to stimulate the T cell, which in turn secretes cytokines to stimulate the growth and production of more T cells.

The T helper cell, now activated, leaves to activate a third type of cell, the B cell. Existing B cells are stimulated by the T cell to grow, divide, and produce genetically identical daughter cells. Some of the daughter cells become plasma cells that produce antibodies that are specific for the antigen that stimulated their production. The amount and type of antibody produced results from the interaction of T helper cells (which stimulate antibody production) and T suppressor cells (which inhibit antibody production). Other daughter cells remain as B cells in the circulation for many years. They serve as "memory cells", remembering the encounter with the antigen that stimulated their production.

Read a summary of antigen presentation to T cells in Janeway & Traver's Immunobiology

If this is the first time the antigen has been encountered, a primary immune response is mounted. Usually there is a delay of several days, then IgM antibody is produced, followed by a switch to IgG antibody production. The initial IgM molecules bind the antigen weakly, but the subsequent IgG molecules are much better targeted. IgG continues to be produced long after the encounter with the antigen, providing long-lasting immunity.

If the immune system has encountered the antigen before, it will already be armed with primed B cells (memory cells) that accelerate the production of larger amounts of IgG (rather than IgM). This is called the secondary immune response. It is faster, more specific, and the production of the specific antibody may remain high for years. B cells may also undergo changes to further improve how the antibodies they produce bind to the antigen.

There are two main arms of immune response: humoral (using antibodies) and cellular (using immune cells). Severe immune-mediated transfusion reactions usually involve the humoral arm. In the case of a foreign red blood cell antigen, the patient's pre-existing antibodies bind to the antigen, coating the donor RBCs.

Some types of antibody may activate the complement cascade, a series of enzyme-driven reactions involving protein fragments. The cascade ends with the formation of a "membrane attack complex", a large molecule that punches a hole in the cell membrane. Other antibodies simply bind to the donor RBCs and cause them to clump together (agglutinate). The agglutinated cells may survive or may be prematurely removed from the circulation by the macrophages.

Otherwise, the fate of the incompatible RBCs largely rests in the hands of macrophages in the liver or the spleen. They remove the antibody-coated cells from the circulation and phagocytose them. Phagocytosis is aided by the macrophages having a receptor that binds to the antibodies and another receptor that binds to complement fragments. Therefore, incompatible RBCs are rapidly destroyed after antibody binding. In addition, this antibody response may cause dangerous hemolytic transfusion reactions as described below.

To avoid a transfusion reaction, donated blood must be compatible with the blood of the patient who is receiving the transfusion. More specifically, the donated RBCs must lack the same ABO and Rh D antigens that the patient's RBCs lack. For example, a patient with blood group A can receive blood from a donor with blood group A (which lacks the B antigen) or blood group O (which lacks all ABO blood group antigens). However, they cannot receive blood from a donor with blood group B or AB (which both have the B antigen).

Before a blood transfusion, two blood tests known as a "type and cross match" are done. First, the recipient's blood type is determined, i.e., their ABO type and Rh D status. In theory, once the recipient's blood type is known, a transfusion of compatible blood can be given. However, in practice, donor blood may still be incompatible because it contains other antigens that are not routinely typed but may still cause a problem if the recipient's serum contains antibodies that will target them. Therefore, a "cross match" is done to ensure that the donor RBCs actually do match against the recipient's serum.

To perform a cross match, a small amount of the recipient's serum is mixed with a small amount of the donor RBCs. The mixture is then examined under a microscope. If the proposed transfusion is incompatible, the donor RBCs are agglutinated by antibodies in the recipient's serum.

Immune-mediated transfusion reactions occur when incompatible blood products are transfused into a patient's circulation, triggering a response from the patient's immune system. The destruction of incompatible RBCs is called a hemolytic transfusion reaction, which may occur immediately (acute) or after a period of days (delayed). The destruction of incompatible donor white blood cells (WBCs) causes a febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction (FNHTR), and the destruction of incompatible donor platelets causes post-transfusion purpura (PTP).

The symptoms produced by these transfusion reactions are often similar, beginning with chills, fever, shaking, and aching. Some transfusion reactions are mild and resolve by themselves (e.g., FNHTR) whereas others can develop into a life-threatening reaction (e.g., acute hemolytic transfusion reaction).

The risks are minimized by using blood products only when necessary and, even then, using a specific blood component rather than whole blood. Also, all WBCs are now removed from donated blood; leukodepletion reduces the risk of certain infections as well as the risk of fever due to white blood cell incompatibility.

Hemolytic transfusion reactions (HTRs) are reactions in which donor RBCs are destroyed by antibodies in the recipient's circulation. They occur when antigen-positive donor RBCs are transfused into a patient who has preformed antibodies to that antigen. The donor RBCs may be destroyed immediately (a potentially serious reaction) or may have a shortened or even normal survival time (milder reactions).

Red blood cell incompatibility may also occur when the patient's RBC antigens are attacked by antibodies from the donor's plasma. This tends to be a minor problem because of the small amount of antibody present in the donated plasma, which is further diluted on transfusion into the recipient's circulation.

Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions occur within 24 hours of the transfusion and often occur during the transfusion. Ominously, the patient may report a "feeling of impending doom". They may also complain of a burning sensation at the site of the infusion, together with chills, fever, and pain in the back and flanks.

The severity of the reaction depends upon: (1) how much incompatible antigen was transfusedhow much blood was given and the number of antigens per red blood cell; (2) the nature of the antigen - its size and location on the red blood cell membrane; and (3) the nature of the recipient's antibodies - the type (IgG or IgM) and subtype (IgG3) of antibody, the amount present in the circulation at the time of the transfusion, its avidity for binding to the antigen, and its ability to activate complement.

The most severe reactions involve an intravascular hemolysis; the donor RBCs are destroyed by the recipient's antibodies while they are still inside blood vessels. Such reactions involve antibodies that strongly activate complement, which in turn lyses the donor RBCs. Hemoglobin is released into the plasma and excreted in urine (hemoglobinuria), turning the urine a dark brown color. Bilirubin, a metabolite of hemoglobin usually secreted into bile by the liver, instead accumulates in the blood causing jaundice. Massive activation of complement can cause shock, as can the large amounts of tissue factor released by RBC debris that triggers an uncontrollable clotting cascade (disseminated intravascular coagulation).

The most common cause of an acute intravascular hemolytic transfusion reaction is ABO incompatibility. The ABO blood group antigens are densely expressed on the RBC surface, and most people have adequate amounts of preformed antibodies that can not only bind to the RBCs but can also activate complement. Although routine typing and cross matching should prevent incompatible ABO blood group antigens from triggering this type of reaction, human error occasionally leads to the "wrong blood" being given during a transfusion.

Apart from anti-A and anti-B, other antibodies capable of intravascular hemolysis of transfused RBCs include anti-H produced in people with the Bombay blood group (see the H blood group), anti-Jka (see the Kidd blood group), and anti-P, P1, Pk (see the P blood group system).

In extravascular hemolytic reactions, the donor RBCs are removed from the circulation by macrophages in the spleen and liver. The macrophages destroy the red blood cells inside these organs.

The donor RBCs may still be coated with the recipient's antibodies, but these antibodies do not trigger an immediate intravascular hemolysis. Instead, their presence (specifically, the Fc component of the antibody) is recognized by IgG-Fc receptors of macrophages, which aids the phagocytosis of the cells. Antibodies directed at antigens of the Rh blood group mediate this type of RBC removal.

Other types of antibody that bind to the donor RBCs may bind the complement component C3b without activating the entire cascade. This further aids the phagocytosis by macrophages that have C3b receptors. Such antibodies include those directed against antigens of the ABO, Duffy, and Kidd blood groups.

Because the extravascular destruction of RBCs is slower and more controlled than intravascular hemolysis, very little free hemoglobin is released into the circulation or excreted in the urine. The liver can keep up with the increased production of bilirubin, and jaundice rarely occurs. Therefore, the main symptoms of this type of reaction are fever and chills.

Delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions may occur as soon as 1 day or as late as 14 days after a blood transfusion. The donor RBCs are destroyed by the recipient's antibodies, but the hemolysis is "delayed" because the antibodies are only present in low amounts initially.

The recipient's antibodies were formed during a previous sensitization (primary stimulation) with a particular antigen. However, by the time a cross match is done, the level of antibody in the recipient's plasma is too low to cause agglutination, making this type of reaction difficult to prevent. Likewise, during the blood transfusion the level of antibody is too low to cause an acute transfusion reaction.

However, during the blood transfusion, as the patient re-encounters the antigen, his or her immune system is stimulated to rapidly produce more antibodies (secondary stimulation). Over the following days, the recipient's antibodies bind to the donor RBCs, which are subsequently removed from the circulation by macrophages (extravascular hemolysis).

The clinical outcome depends upon the rate at which the patient can produce antibodies and hence destroy the donor RBCs. Usually, this type of reaction is much less severe than acute hemolytic reactions.

This type of transfusion reaction is associated with antibodies that target the Kidd and Rh antigens.

The most common transfusion reaction is a fever without signs of hemolysis. This is called a febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction (FNHTR). Most cases are mildthe patients may describe feeling hot and cold, their temperatures rise by at least 1C, and they may have rigors. Only when other potentially severe causes of transfusion reactions have been excluded may FNHRT be diagnosed.

The cause is thought to be the patient's preformed antibodies attacking transfused WBCs, binding to their HLA antigens. Another factor might be that during the storage of blood units, WBCs release cytokines that may provoke a fever when the unit of blood is transfused into a patient.

The risk of FNHRT is reduced by removing WBCs from blood units prior to storagea process known as leukodepletion. In addition, patients who receive multiple transfusions may be given an anti-pyretic before the transfusion to lessen fever symptoms.

Post transfusion purpura (PTP) is defined as a thrombocytopenia (low number of platelets) that occurs 5 to 10 days after a platelet transfusion. Patients are at risk of bleeding, and bleeding into the skin causes a purplish discoloration of the skin known as purpura.

PTP is caused by the recipient having a platelet-specific antibody that reacts with the donor platelets. The recipient's own platelets are also attacked. The platelet antigen HPA-1a appears to be most frequently targeted.

PTP is more common in women because pregnancy increases the likelihood of forming the platelet-specific antibody. It may also have formed after an earlier platelet transfusion. Treatment includes the use of intravenous immunoglobulin to neutralize the antibodies or to remove them from the plasma by plasmapheresis.

Some patients can have an allergic reaction after their blood transfusionsthey report feeling itchy and break out into hives (urticaria). This is more common in patients who have a history of allergic conditions such as hay fever.

This type of allergic reaction happens when existing IgE antibody binds to its antigen and triggers the release of histamine from the patient's mast cells and basophils. In an allergic reaction to a blood transfusion, either the transfused blood contains IgE that binds to antigen from the recipient's blood, or the antibody is the recipient's own and binds to antigen in the transfused blood.

Fortunately, symptoms are usually mild and can be controlled by stopping the transfusion and giving antihistamines.

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening allergic reaction that can occur after only a few milliliters of blood have been transfused. The patient reports difficulty breathing and may be wheezing and coughing. There may also be nausea and vomiting in the absence of a fever. Other signs include low blood pressure, loss of consciousness, respiratory arrest, and circulatory shock. Urgent treatment is essential and includes giving epinephrine.

Usually the antigen that triggers the anaphylaxis is not known. In the case of patients with IgA deficiency, it is thought that the presence of IgA in the donor's plasma is the trigger. IgA-deficient patients have a mild immunodeficiency that may not have been diagnosed. Because they lack IgA, their immune systems can be sensitized to it. Although this type of transfusion reaction is rare in these patients, special precautions are taken to reduce their risk of exposure to IgA in blood products.

Transfusion associated lung injury (TRALI) is a rare and occasionally fatal transfusion reaction characterized by a sudden onset of shortness of breath.

The underlying mechanism is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve the transfusion of donor plasma that contains antibodies that attack the recipient's WBCs. These donor antibodies bind to, and cause the aggregation of, the recipient's WBCs in the blood vessels that supply the lungs. The white cells release inflammatory mediators that increase the permeability of the lung capillaries, causing fluid to accumulate in the tissue of the lungs, a condition known as pulmonary edema for which supportive treatment is given.

Transfusion associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD) arises when transfused blood cells (the graft) attack the patient's own cells (the host). It is more common in immunocompromised patients whose immune systems fail to eliminate the transfused cells. Instead, the surviving donor T cells attack cells that bear HLA antigens.

This type of reaction becomes apparent about one week after the transfusion. Signs include a fever, characteristic skin lesions, and diarrhea. Blood tests reveal signs of bone marrow failure and liver malfunction.

To prevent TA-GVHD, special precautions are taken with high-risk patients. They only receive blood products that have been irradiated. This prevents all donor cells, including the T cells, from being able to divide and attack the host. In cases where TA-GVHD does develop, the outcome is grave. The patient usually dies several weeks after the blood transfusion.

Not all of the problems that can arise during a blood transfusion are attributable to the immune system. Some are mechanical, especially in patients who need multiple blood transfusions. For example, blood that is not sufficiently warmed before transfusion can cause hypothermia. Also, the volume of blood that needs to be transfused may be too great for the patient's cardiovascular system, especially in elderly patients or patients with varying degrees of heart failure. In such cases, transfusion can cause volume overload and respiratory difficulty.

Metabolic disturbances can also occur, older or damaged RBCs release potassium, and transfusing such blood may cause hyperkalemia (an increased level of potassium) in the patient, putting them at risk of heart arrhythmias. In large amounts, citrate, a blood preservative that prevents clotting, can lower the level of calcium in the plasma (hypocalcemia), leading to muscle tremors and heart arrhythmias.

Finally, the risk of blood transfusions transmitting infectious diseases has been greatly reduced, but a small risk still remains. A virus can be passed on from the donor who is unaware that he or she has an infection. Infection may also occur after the blood has been donated; bacteria can contaminate blood products while they are being stored.

To minimize the risk of infection, blood donors are now screened, and people who are at risk of infectious diseases are excluded from donating blood. In addition, all donated blood is tested for infectious agents. Currently in the USA, blood is tested for HIV, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, syphilis, and HTLV types I and II, which are linked to leukemia. Since 2003, blood has also been screened for West Nile virus (WNV).

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Blood transfusions and the immune system - Blood Groups ...

For too long, weve taken gratitude for granted.

Yes, thank you is an essential, everyday part of family dinners, trips to the store, business deals, and political negotiations. That might be why so many people have dismissed gratitude as simple, obvious, and unworthy of serious attention.

But thats starting to change. Recently scientists have begun to chart a course of research aimed at understanding gratitude and the circumstances in which it flourishes or diminishes. Theyre finding that people who practice gratitude consistently report a host of benefits:

Thats why the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeleyin collaboration with the University of California, Davislaunched the multiyear project Expanding the Science and Practice of Gratitude. The project is supported with funding from the John Templeton Foundation. The general goals of this initiative are to:

To achieve these goals, we have developed a range of research and education initiatives, from a research grant competition to a series of articles on gratitude to a large public event.

You can learn more about the fruits of the first phase of the project (through June 2014) in this short video; the second three-year phase of the project launched in early 2015. A more detailed description of the entire project is below.

1. Research Grant Competition. At the end of 2011, we launched a $3 million research initiative to expand the scientific understanding of gratitude, particularly in the key areas of health and well-being, developmental science, and social contexts. We received nearly 300 applications from institutions all over the United States, and we evaluated each one based on its scientific significance, approach and methods, creativity, potential influence, and capacity for success.

The 14 winning projects were announced in August of 2012; they cover topics ranging from the neuroscience of gratitude to the role of gratitude in romantic relationships to how gratitude might reduce bullying. In the fall of 2013, grant award winners participated in a research retreat, where they presented their work to date and discussed the next stages of building the field.

2. Dissertation Research Awards. In January 2013, we announced 15 grants in support of the most innovative dissertation research projects on gratitude, with emphasis on research than spans two or more disciplines. Awardees received $10,000 for one year to assist in the conduct of their research into topics that include workplace gratitude, the role of gratitude in couples coping with breast cancer, and the neuropharmacological basis of gratitude.

3. Youth Gratitude Research Project. Building on research into the development of gratitude in children and adolescents, researchers at California State University, Dominguez Hills, the University of California, Davis, and Hofstra University have been running a multi-year study to address the following questions: What is the role of gratitude in positive youth development? What can the people with the greatest influence over childrenparents, teachers, coaches, and othersdo to foster gratitude in children? What is the developmental trajectory of gratitude in children? What school-based interventions can promote sustainable increases in grateful character traits? Is there a critical period when the capacity for gratitude is best transmitted from an older to a younger generation? To what degree is gratitude predictive of positive outcomes such as school success, overall well-being, community service, resiliency, health behaviors, and less risk taking? You can learn more about the Youth Gratitude Project here.

1. Expanding Coverage of the Science of Gratitude. New research on gratitude has the potential to improve the lives of millions, if not billions, of people worldwide. For almost a decade, the Greater Good Science Center has provided trailblazing coverage of the science of gratitude through its website, books, and other media. Now, as part of the project, the GGSC has greatly expanded its coverage, helping the general public understand new findings from the science of gratitude and apply this research to their personal and professional lives. In the latest phase of the ESPG project, the GGSC will also report on the launch, progress, and results of the research funded through the Expanding Gratitude project.

You can view our latest stories on gratitude here, including articles, videos, and posts to Christine Carters Raising Happiness parenting blog. Also check out our gratitude definition page, succinctly outlining what gratitude is, why its worth practicing, and how to cultivate it. For more on gratitude, see our list of key gratitude books, studies, and organizations.

2. Gratitude Radio Specials. As part of the GGSCs efforts to illuminate the results of gratitude research through high-quality journalism, it has partnered with the Peabody Award-winning Ben Manilla Productions to produce a series of specials for public radio. First was the State of Gratitude seriesa series of short pieces exploring different aspects of gratitude, such as the importance of gratitude in romantic relationships, in friendships, and in the workplace. The pieces aired on public radio stations nationwide around Thanksgiving of 2013 and can be heard here.

Building on that success, the GGSC and Ben Manilla Productions then co-produced The Science of Gratitude, an hour-long, documentary-style special narrated by Academy Award-winner Susan Sarandon and distributed by Public Radio International to stations across North America. That special includes segments exploring gratitudes role in health, happiness, education, and even death, combining the latest scientific findings with stories that bring the research to life. The Science of Gratitude is airing around Thanksgiving of 2015 and through the holiday season on public radio stations in New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Dallas/Fort Worth, Detroit, Atlanta, San Diego, Cleveland, Portland, and many other cities. Check with your local public radio station to determine when The Science of Gratitude will be broadcast in your area.

3. Digital Gratitude Journal. In the fall of 2012, we launched Thnx4.org, an online journal that allows users to record and share the things for which theyre grateful. This unprecedented, web-based effort to track and promote the practice of gratitude worldwide also serves as an invaluable source of scientific data on gratitude: Users of Thnx4 can see how practicing gratitude affects their health and happiness, and these results will also be made available to the research community, though individual users always have the option to keep their data private. In effect, Thnx4 gives the public and researchers the opportunity to study trends in the practice of gratitude, and it has the potential to provide a truly global snapshot of our planets current state of gratefulness.

Thnx4s launch received considerable media coverage and engaged users from around the world; our analysis of its initial round of data showed that it gave a significant boost to users health and happiness. Thnx4 went offline in the summer of 2013 and is relaunching in the fall of 2015.

4. Public Event. In June of 2014, the GGSC hosted The Greater Good Gratitude Summit, a large public event where more than 600 people participated in a day of science, stories, and inspiration. This event featured presentations by researchers (including many of the GGSCs gratitude grant recipients), educators, and special guests such as U.S. Olympic womens swimming head coach Teri McKeever, producers from the public radio series StoryCorps, and spiritual teachers Jack Kornfield and Brother David Steindl-Rast.

We have since reported on some of the key insights shared at the event and produced videos of the presentations.

In the latest three-year phase of the ESPG project, running from 2015-2018, the GGSC is partnering with leaders in education, health care, and business to explore how the fruits of gratitude research can inform new initiatives to build well-being in each of those fields.

The GGSCs work to apply gratitude research findings to the real world will be conducted in collaboration with GreatSchools.org, Teach for America, the Committee for Children (which runs the Second Step program), Kaiser Permanente, Sharp HealthCare, and several other prominent organizations.

What to know more about the science and practice of gratitude? Please see these Greater Good resources:

Expanding the Science and Practice of Gratitude Greater Good Science Center University of California, Berkeley, MC 6070 Berkeley, CA 94720-6070 510.642.2490 .(JavaScript must be enabled to view this email address) http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/expandinggratitude

Link:
Expanding the Science and Practice of Gratitude | Greater Good

AMPK signaling, organism-specific biosystemAMPK signaling pathway, a fuel sensor and regulator, promotes ATP-producing and inhibits ATP-consuming pathways in various tissues. AMPK is a heterotrimer composed of alpha-catalytic and beta and gam...

Activation of BH3-only proteins, organism-specific biosystemThe BH3-only members act as sentinels that selectively trigger apoptosis in response to developmental cues or stress-signals like DNA damages. Widely expressed mammalian BH3-only proteins are thought...

Activation of NOXA and translocation to mitochondria, organism-specific biosystemNOXA is transactivated in a p53-dependent manner and by E2F1. Activated NOXA is translocated to mitochondria.

Activation of PUMA and translocation to mitochondria, organism-specific biosystemPuma is transactivated in a p53-dependent manner and by E2F1. Activated Puma is translocated to mitochondria.

Alzheimers Disease, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway displays current genes, proteolytic events and other processes associated with the progression of Alzheimer's disease. This pathway was adapted from KEGG on 10/7/2011. Note: mitochondria...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), organism-specific biosystemAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of motor neurons. The hallmark of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord...

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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), conserved biosystemAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of motor neurons. The hallmark of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord...

Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemApoptosis is a distinct form of cell death that is functionally and morphologically different from necrosis. Nuclear chromatin condensation, cytoplasmic shrinking, dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and ...

Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemApoptosis is a genetically programmed process for the elimination of damaged or redundant cells by activation of caspases (aspartate-specific cysteine proteases). The onset of apoptosis is controlled...

Apoptosis, conserved biosystemApoptosis is a genetically programmed process for the elimination of damaged or redundant cells by activation of caspases (aspartate-specific cysteine proteases). The onset of apoptosis is controlled...

Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemApoptosis is a distinct form of cell death that is functionally and morphologically different from necrosis. Nuclear chromatin condensation, cytoplasmic shrinking, dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and ...

Association of TriC/CCT with target proteins during biosynthesis, organism-specific biosystemTRiC has broad recognition specificities, but in the cell it interacts with only a defined set of substrates (Yam et al. 2008). Many of its substrates that are targeted during biosynthesis are conse...

Aurora A signaling, organism-specific biosystem Aurora A signaling

Autodegradation of the E3 ubiquitin ligase COP1, organism-specific biosystemCOP1 is one of several E3 ubiquitin ligases responsible for the tight regulation of p53 abundance. Following DNA damage, COP1 dissociates from p53 and is inactivated by autodegradation via a path...

BARD1 signaling events, organism-specific biosystem BARD1 signaling events

Basal cell carcinoma, organism-specific biosystemCancer of the skin is the most common cancer in Caucasians and basal cell carcinomas (BCC) account for 90% of all skin cancers. The vast majority of BCC cases are sporadic, though there is a rare fam...

Basal cell carcinoma, conserved biosystemCancer of the skin is the most common cancer in Caucasians and basal cell carcinomas (BCC) account for 90% of all skin cancers. The vast majority of BCC cases are sporadic, though there is a rare fam...

Bladder cancer, organism-specific biosystemThe urothelium covers the luminal surface of almost the entire urinary tract, extending from the renal pelvis, through the ureter and bladder, to the proximal urethra. The majority of urothelial carc...

Bladder cancer, conserved biosystemThe urothelium covers the luminal surface of almost the entire urinary tract, extending from the renal pelvis, through the ureter and bladder, to the proximal urethra. The majority of urothelial carc...

Cell Cycle, organism-specific biosystem Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle Checkpoints, organism-specific biosystemA hallmark of the human cell cycle in normal somatic cells is its precision. This remarkable fidelity is achieved by a number of signal transduction pathways, known as checkpoints, which monitor cell...

Cell Cycle, Mitotic, organism-specific biosystemThe replication of the genome and the subsequent segregation of chromosomes into daughter cells are controlled by a series of events collectively known as the cell cycle. DNA replication is carried o...

Cell cycle, organism-specific biosystemThe cell cycle is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication). Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a c...

Cell cycle, organism-specific biosystemMitotic cell cycle progression is accomplished through a reproducible sequence of events, DNA replication (S phase) and mitosis (M phase) separated temporally by gaps known as G1 and G2 phases. Cycli...

Cell cycle, conserved biosystemMitotic cell cycle progression is accomplished through a reproducible sequence of events, DNA replication (S phase) and mitosis (M phase) separated temporally by gaps known as G1 and G2 phases. Cycli...

Cellular Senescence, organism-specific biosystemCellular senescence involves irreversible growth arrest accompanied by phenotypic changes such as enlarged morphology, reorganization of chromatin through formation of senescence-associated heterochr...

Cellular responses to stress, organism-specific biosystemCells are subject to external molecular and physical stresses such as foreign molecules that perturb metabolic or signaling processes, and changes in temperature or pH. The ability of cells and tissu...

Central carbon metabolism in cancer, organism-specific biosystemMalignant transformation of cells requires specific adaptations of cellular metabolism to support growth and survival. In the early twentieth century, Otto Warburg established that there are fundamen...

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Chaperonin-mediated protein folding, organism-specific biosystemThe eukaryotic chaperonin TCP-1 ring complex (TRiC/ CCT) plays an essential role in the folding of a subset of proteins prominent among which are the actins and tubulins (reviewed in Altschuler and...

Chronic myeloid leukemia, organism-specific biosystemChronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) originates in a pluripotent hematopoetic stem cell of the bone marrow and is characterized by greatly increased numbers of granulocytes in the blood. Myeloid and ot...

Chronic myeloid leukemia, conserved biosystemChronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) originates in a pluripotent hematopoetic stem cell of the bone marrow and is characterized by greatly increased numbers of granulocytes in the blood. Myeloid and ot...

Colorectal cancer, organism-specific biosystemColorectal cancer (CRC) is the second largest cause of cancer-related deaths in Western countries. CRC arises from the colorectal epithelium as a result of the accumulation of genetic alterations in ...

Colorectal cancer, conserved biosystemColorectal cancer (CRC) is the second largest cause of cancer-related deaths in Western countries. CRC arises from the colorectal epithelium as a result of the accumulation of genetic alterations in ...

DNA Damage/Telomere Stress Induced Senescence, organism-specific biosystemReactive oxygen species (ROS), whose concentration increases in senescent cells due to oncogenic RAS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction (Moiseeva et al. 2009) or due to environmental stress, cause DNA...

DNA Double Strand Break Response, organism-specific biosystemDNA double strand break (DSB) response involves sensing of DNA DSBs by the MRN complex which triggers ATM activation. ATM phosphorylates a number of proteins involved in DNA damage checkpoint signali...

DNA Double-Strand Break Repair, organism-specific biosystemNumerous types of DNA damage can occur within a cell due to the endogenous production of oxygen free radicals, normal alkylation reactions, or exposure to exogenous radiations and chemicals. Double-s...

DNA Repair, organism-specific biosystemDNA repair is a phenomenal multi-enzyme, multi-pathway system required to ensure the integrity of the cellular genome. Living organisms are constantly exposed to harmful metabolic by-products, enviro...

DNA damage response, organism-specific biosystemThis is the first pathway out of two pathways which deals with DNA damage response. It has two central gene products (ATM and ATR) which are connected to the sources of DNA damage (in blue). The two ...

DNA damage response (only ATM dependent), organism-specific biosystemThis is the second pathway out of two pathways which deals with DNA damage response. It has two central gene products (ATM and TP53) which are connected with the first DNA damage response pathway. In...

Delta-Notch Signaling Pathway, organism-specific biosystemThere are 4 Notch receptors in humans (Notch 1-4) that bind to a family of 5 ligands (Jagged 1 and 2 and Delta-like 1-3). The Notch receptors are expressed on the cell surface as heterodimeric protei...

Direct p53 effectors, organism-specific biosystem Direct p53 effectors

Endometrial cancer, organism-specific biosystemEndometrial cancer (EC) is the most common gynaecological malignancy and the fourth most common malignancy in women in the developed world after breast, colorectal and lung cancer. Two types of endom...

Endometrial cancer, conserved biosystemEndometrial cancer (EC) is the most common gynaecological malignancy and the fourth most common malignancy in women in the developed world after breast, colorectal and lung cancer. Two types of endom...

Epstein-Barr virus infection, organism-specific biosystemEpstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human herpesvirus that is associated with oncogenesis. EBV infection to primary human B lymphocytes leads to induction of EBV-specific HLA-restricted cytotoxi...

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ErbB signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe ErbB protein family or epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family is a family of four structurally related receptor tyrosine kinases. Insufficient ErbB signaling in humans is associated with ...

Factors involved in megakaryocyte development and platelet production, organism-specific biosystemMegakaryocytes (MKs) give rise to circulating platelets (thrombocytes) through terminal differentiation of MKs which release cytoplasmic fragments as circulating platelets. As MKs mature they underg...

Fluoropyrimidine Activity, organism-specific biosystemThe main mechanism of 5-FU activation is conversion to fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate (FdUMP) which inhibits the enzyme thymidylate synthase (TYMS), an important part of the folate-homocysteine cyc...

Formation of Senescence-Associated Heterochromatin Foci (SAHF), organism-specific biosystemThe process of DNA damage/telomere stress induced senescence culminates in the formation of senescence associated heterochromatin foci (SAHF). These foci represent facultative heterochromatin that is...

G1 to S cell cycle control, organism-specific biosystemIn the G1 phase there are two types of DNA damage responses, the p53-dependent and the p53-independent pathways. The p53-dependent responses inhibit CDKs through the up-regulation of genes encoding C...

G1/S DNA Damage Checkpoints, organism-specific biosystemIn the G1 phase there are two types of DNA damage responses, the p53-dependent and the p53-independent pathways. The p53-dependent responses inhibit CDKs through the up-regulation of genes encoding ...

G2/M Checkpoints, organism-specific biosystemG2/M checkpoints include the checks for damaged DNA, unreplicated DNA, and checks that ensure that the genome is replicated once and only once per cell cycle. If cells pass these checkpoints, they f...

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G2/M Transition, organism-specific biosystemCyclin A can also form complexes with Cdc2 (Cdk1). Together with three B-type cyclins, Cdc2 (Cdk1) regulates the transition from G2 into mitosis. These complexes are activated by dephosphorylation of...

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Generic Transcription Pathway, organism-specific biosystemOVERVIEW OF TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION: Detailed studies of gene transcription regulation in a wide variety of eukaryotic systems has revealed the general principles and mechanisms by which cell- or t...

Glioma, organism-specific biosystemGliomas are the most common of the primary brain tumors and account for more than 40% of all central nervous system neoplasms. Gliomas include tumours that are composed predominantly of astrocytes (a...

Glioma, conserved biosystemGliomas are the most common of the primary brain tumors and account for more than 40% of all central nervous system neoplasms. Gliomas include tumours that are composed predominantly of astrocytes (a...

Glucocorticoid receptor regulatory network, organism-specific biosystem Glucocorticoid receptor regulatory network

HTLV-I infection, organism-specific biosystemHuman T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a pathogenic retrovirus that is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). It is also strongly implicated in non-neoplastic chronic inflammato...

HTLV-I infection, conserved biosystemHuman T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a pathogenic retrovirus that is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). It is also strongly implicated in non-neoplastic chronic inflammato...

Hemostasis, organism-specific biosystemHemostasis is a physiological response that culminates in the arrest of bleeding from an injured vessel. Under normal conditions the vascular endothelium supports vasodilation, inhibits platelet adhe...

Hepatitis B, organism-specific biosystemHepatitis B virus (HBV) is an enveloped virus and contains a partially double-stranded relaxed circular DNA (RC-DNA) genome. After entry into hepatocytes, HBV RC-DNA is transported to the nucleus and...

Hepatitis C, organism-specific biosystemHepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease. The HCV employ several strategies to perturb host cell immunity. After invasion, HCV RNA genome functions directly as an mRNA in the...

Hepatitis C, conserved biosystemHepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease. The HCV employ several strategies to perturb host cell immunity. After invasion, HCV RNA genome functions directly as an mRNA in the...

Herpes simplex infection, organism-specific biosystemHerpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are very common worldwide, with the prevalence of HSV-1 reaching up to 80%-90%. Primary infection with HSV takes place in the mucosa, followed by the establishme...

Herpes simplex infection, conserved biosystemHerpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are very common worldwide, with the prevalence of HSV-1 reaching up to 80%-90%. Primary infection with HSV takes place in the mucosa, followed by the establishme...

Huntington's disease, organism-specific biosystemHuntington disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects medium spiny striatal neurons (MSN). The symptoms are choreiform, involuntary movements, personality...

Huntington's disease, conserved biosystemHuntington disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects medium spiny striatal neurons (MSN). The symptoms are choreiform, involuntary movements, personality...

Hypoxic and oxygen homeostasis regulation of HIF-1-alpha, organism-specific biosystem Hypoxic and oxygen homeostasis regulation of HIF-1-alpha

Integrated Breast Cancer Pathway, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway incorporates the most important proteins for Breast Cancer. The Rp score from the Connectivity-Maps (C-Maps) webserver was used to determine the rank of the most important proteins in Br...

Integrated Cancer pathway, organism-specific biosystem Integrated Cancer pathway

Integrated Pancreatic Cancer Pathway, organism-specific biosystemAn integrated pathway model which displays the protein-protein interactions (PPIs) among the relevant proteins for pancreatic cancer. This pathway is a collection of different mechanistic protein pat...

Intrinsic Pathway for Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemThe intrinsic (Bcl-2 inhibitable or mitochondrial) pathway of apoptosis functions in response to various types of intracellular stress including growth factor withdrawal, DNA damage, unfolding stress...

LKB1 signaling events, organism-specific biosystem LKB1 signaling events

Longevity regulating pathway, organism-specific biosystemRegulation of longevity depends on genetic and environmental factors. Caloric restriction (CR), that is limiting food intake, is recognized in mammals as the best characterized and most reproducible ...

MAPK signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

MAPK signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

MAPK signaling pathway, conserved biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

Measles, organism-specific biosystemMeasles virus (MV) is highly contagious virus that leads infant death worldwide. Humans are the unique natural reservoir for this virus. It causes severe immunosuppression favouring secondary bacteri...

Measles, conserved biosystemMeasles virus (MV) is highly contagious virus that leads infant death worldwide. Humans are the unique natural reservoir for this virus. It causes severe immunosuppression favouring secondary bacteri...

Melanoma, organism-specific biosystemMelanoma is a form of skin cancer that has a poor prognosis and which is on the rise in Western populations. Melanoma arises from the malignant transformation of pigment-producing cells, melanocytes...

Melanoma, conserved biosystemMelanoma is a form of skin cancer that has a poor prognosis and which is on the rise in Western populations. Melanoma arises from the malignant transformation of pigment-producing cells, melanocytes...

Metabolism of proteins, organism-specific biosystemProtein metabolism comprises the pathways of translation, post-translational modification and protein folding.

MicroRNAs in cancer, organism-specific biosystemMicroRNA (miRNA) is a cluster of small non-encoding RNA molecules of 21 - 23 nucleotides in length, which controls gene expression post-transcriptionally either via the degradation of target mRNAs or...

MicroRNAs in cancer, conserved biosystemMicroRNA (miRNA) is a cluster of small non-encoding RNA molecules of 21 - 23 nucleotides in length, which controls gene expression post-transcriptionally either via the degradation of target mRNAs or...

Mitotic G2-G2/M phases, organism-specific biosystem Mitotic G2-G2/M phases

Neurotrophin signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemNeurotrophins are a family of trophic factors involved in differentiation and survival of neural cells. The neurotrophin family consists of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain derived neurotrophic facto...

Neurotrophin signaling pathway, conserved biosystemNeurotrophins are a family of trophic factors involved in differentiation and survival of neural cells. The neurotrophin family consists of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain derived neurotrophic facto...

Non-small cell lung cancer, organism-specific biosystemLung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death among men and women in industrialized countries. Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of lung cancer and represents a heter...

Non-small cell lung cancer, conserved biosystemLung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death among men and women in industrialized countries. Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of lung cancer and represents a heter...

Oncogene Induced Senescence, organism-specific biosystemOncogene-induced senescence is triggered by high level of RAS/RAF/MAPK signaling that can be caused, for example, by oncogenic mutations in RAS or RAF proteins, or by oncogenic mutations in growth fa...

Oncostatin M Signaling Pathway, organism-specific biosystemOncostatin M (OSM) is a member of the multifunctional cytokine interleukin 6 (IL6) - type cytokine family. It is mainly produced in cell types such as activated T lymphocytes, macrophages, monocytes,...

Oxidative Stress Induced Senescence, organism-specific biosystemOxidative stress, caused by increased concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell, can happen as a consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction induced by the oncogenic RAS (Moiseeva et al...

PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe phosphatidylinositol 3' -kinase(PI3K)-Akt signaling pathway is activated by many types of cellular stimuli or toxic insults and regulates fundamental cellular functions such as transcription, tra...

PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, conserved biosystemThe phosphatidylinositol 3' -kinase(PI3K)-Akt signaling pathway is activated by many types of cellular stimuli or toxic insults and regulates fundamental cellular functions such as transcription, tra...

PLK3 signaling events, organism-specific biosystem PLK3 signaling events

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TP53 tumor protein p53 [ (human)] - Gene ID - 7157

AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, organism-specific biosystemAdvanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a complex group of compounds produced through the non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, primarily due to aging and un...

AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, conserved biosystemAdvanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a complex group of compounds produced through the non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, primarily due to aging and un...

Adipocytokine signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemIncreased adipocyte volume and number are positively correlated with leptin production, and negatively correlated with production of adiponectin. Leptin is an important regulator of energy intake and...

Adipocytokine signaling pathway, conserved biosystemIncreased adipocyte volume and number are positively correlated with leptin production, and negatively correlated with production of adiponectin. Leptin is an important regulator of energy intake and...

Adipogenesis, organism-specific biosystemThe different classess of factors involved in adipogenesis are shown. Adipogenesis is the process by which fat cells differentiate from predadipocytes to adipocytes (fat cells). Adipose tissue, compo...

African trypanosomiasis, organism-specific biosystemTrypanosoma brucei, the parasite responsible for African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), are spread by the tsetse fly in sub-Saharan Africa. The parasites are able to pass through the blood-brai...

African trypanosomiasis, conserved biosystemTrypanosoma brucei, the parasite responsible for African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), are spread by the tsetse fly in sub-Saharan Africa. The parasites are able to pass through the blood-brai...

AhR pathway, organism-specific biosystem AhR pathway

Allograft Rejection, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway illustrates molecular interactions involved in the fundamental adaptive immune response for allograft destruction. This pathway was adapted in large part from the KEGG pathway http://www...

Allograft rejection, organism-specific biosystemAllograft rejection is the consequence of the recipient's alloimmune response to nonself antigens expressed by donor tissues. After transplantation of organ allografts, there are two pathways of anti...

Allograft rejection, conserved biosystemAllograft rejection is the consequence of the recipient's alloimmune response to nonself antigens expressed by donor tissues. After transplantation of organ allografts, there are two pathways of anti...

Alzheimer's disease, organism-specific biosystemAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic disorder that slowly destroys neurons and causes serious cognitive disability. AD is associated with senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Amyloid-b...

Alzheimer's disease, conserved biosystemAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic disorder that slowly destroys neurons and causes serious cognitive disability. AD is associated with senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Amyloid-b...

Alzheimers Disease, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway displays current genes, proteolytic events and other processes associated with the progression of Alzheimer's disease. This pathway was adapted from KEGG on 10/7/2011. Note: mitochondria...

Amoebiasis, organism-specific biosystemEntamoeba histolytica, an extracellular protozoan parasite is a human pathogen that invades the intestinal epithelium. Infection occurs on ingestion of contaminated water and food. The pathogenesis o...

Amoebiasis, conserved biosystemEntamoeba histolytica, an extracellular protozoan parasite is a human pathogen that invades the intestinal epithelium. Infection occurs on ingestion of contaminated water and food. The pathogenesis o...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), organism-specific biosystemAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of motor neurons. The hallmark of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), organism-specific biosystemAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of motor neurons. The hallmark of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), conserved biosystemAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of motor neurons. The hallmark of this disease is the selective death of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord...

Angiopoietin receptor Tie2-mediated signaling, organism-specific biosystem Angiopoietin receptor Tie2-mediated signaling

Antigen processing and presentation, organism-specific biosystem Antigen processing and presentation

Antigen processing and presentation, conserved biosystem Antigen processing and presentation

Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemApoptosis is a distinct form of cell death that is functionally and morphologically different from necrosis. Nuclear chromatin condensation, cytoplasmic shrinking, dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and ...

Apoptosis, organism-specific biosystemApoptosis is a genetically programmed process for the elimination of damaged or redundant cells by activation of caspases (aspartate-specific cysteine proteases). The onset of apoptosis is controlled...

Apoptosis, conserved biosystemApoptosis is a genetically programmed process for the elimination of damaged or redundant cells by activation of caspases (aspartate-specific cysteine proteases). The onset of apoptosis is controlled...

Asthma, organism-specific biosystemAsthma is a complex syndrome with many clinical phenotypes in both adults and children. Its major characteristics include a variable degree of airflow obstruction, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and ...

Asthma, conserved biosystemAsthma is a complex syndrome with many clinical phenotypes in both adults and children. Its major characteristics include a variable degree of airflow obstruction, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and ...

Calcineurin-regulated NFAT-dependent transcription in lymphocytes, organism-specific biosystem Calcineurin-regulated NFAT-dependent transcription in lymphocytes

Canonical NF-kappaB pathway, organism-specific biosystem Canonical NF-kappaB pathway

Caspase cascade in apoptosis, organism-specific biosystem Caspase cascade in apoptosis

Cellular roles of Anthrax toxin, organism-specific biosystem Cellular roles of Anthrax toxin

Ceramide signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystem Ceramide signaling pathway

Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis), organism-specific biosystemTrypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease. The parasite life cycle involves hematophagous reduviid bugs as vectors. Once parasites enter the host body, they ...

Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis), conserved biosystemTrypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease. The parasite life cycle involves hematophagous reduviid bugs as vectors. Once parasites enter the host body, they ...

Cytokine Signaling in Immune system, organism-specific biosystemCytokines are small proteins that regulate and mediate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis. They are secreted in response to immune stimuli, and usually act briefly, locally, at very low concen...

Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, organism-specific biosystemCytokines are soluble extracellular proteins or glycoproteins that are crucial intercellular regulators and mobilizers of cells engaged in innate as well as adaptive inflammatory host defenses, cell ...

Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, conserved biosystemCytokines are soluble extracellular proteins or glycoproteins that are crucial intercellular regulators and mobilizers of cells engaged in innate as well as adaptive inflammatory host defenses, cell ...

Cytokines and Inflammatory Response, organism-specific biosystemInflammation is a protective response to infection by the immune system that requires communication between different classes of immune cells to coordinate their actions. Acute inflammation is an imp...

Death Receptor Signalling, organism-specific biosystemThe death receptors, all cell-surface receptors, begin the process of caspase activation. The common feature of these type 1 transmembrane proteins is the "death-domain" a conserved cytoplasmic motif...

Developmental Biology, organism-specific biosystemAs a first step towards capturing the array of processes by which a fertilized egg gives rise to the diverse tissues of the body, examples of three kinds of processes have been annotated. These are a...

Dilated cardiomyopathy, organism-specific biosystemDilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a heart muscle disease characterised by dilation and impaired contraction of the left or both ventricles that results in progressive heart failure and sudden cardiac d...

Dilated cardiomyopathy, conserved biosystemDilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a heart muscle disease characterised by dilation and impaired contraction of the left or both ventricles that results in progressive heart failure and sudden cardiac d...

Downstream signaling in naive CD8+ T cells, organism-specific biosystem Downstream signaling in naive CD8+ T cells

EBV LMP1 signaling, organism-specific biosystembased on science-slides...

FAS pathway and Stress induction of HSP regulation, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway describes the Fas induced apoptosis and interplay with Hsp27 in response to stress. More info: [http://www.biocarta.com/pathfiles/h_hsp27Pathway.asp BioCarta].

Fc epsilon RI signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemFc epsilon RI-mediated signaling pathways in mast cells are initiated by the interaction of antigen (Ag) with IgE bound to the extracellular domain of the alpha chain of Fc epsilon RI. The activation...

Fc epsilon RI signaling pathway, conserved biosystemFc epsilon RI-mediated signaling pathways in mast cells are initiated by the interaction of antigen (Ag) with IgE bound to the extracellular domain of the alpha chain of Fc epsilon RI. The activation...

Graft-versus-host disease, organism-specific biosystemGraft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a lethal complication of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) where immunocompetent donor T cells attack the genetically disparate host cells....

Graft-versus-host disease, conserved biosystemGraft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a lethal complication of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) where immunocompetent donor T cells attack the genetically disparate host cells....

HIV-1 Nef: Negative effector of Fas and TNF-alpha, organism-specific biosystem HIV-1 Nef: Negative effector of Fas and TNF-alpha

HTLV-I infection, organism-specific biosystemHuman T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a pathogenic retrovirus that is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). It is also strongly implicated in non-neoplastic chronic inflammato...

HTLV-I infection, conserved biosystemHuman T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a pathogenic retrovirus that is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). It is also strongly implicated in non-neoplastic chronic inflammato...

Hematopoietic cell lineage, organism-specific biosystemBlood-cell development progresses from a hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), which can undergo either self-renewal or differentiation into a multilineage committed progenitor cell: a common lymphoid proge...

Hematopoietic cell lineage, conserved biosystemBlood-cell development progresses from a hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), which can undergo either self-renewal or differentiation into a multilineage committed progenitor cell: a common lymphoid proge...

Hepatitis B, organism-specific biosystemHepatitis B virus (HBV) is an enveloped virus and contains a partially double-stranded relaxed circular DNA (RC-DNA) genome. After entry into hepatocytes, HBV RC-DNA is transported to the nucleus and...

Hepatitis C, organism-specific biosystemHepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease. The HCV employ several strategies to perturb host cell immunity. After invasion, HCV RNA genome functions directly as an mRNA in the...

Hepatitis C, conserved biosystemHepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease. The HCV employ several strategies to perturb host cell immunity. After invasion, HCV RNA genome functions directly as an mRNA in the...

Herpes simplex infection, organism-specific biosystemHerpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are very common worldwide, with the prevalence of HSV-1 reaching up to 80%-90%. Primary infection with HSV takes place in the mucosa, followed by the establishme...

Herpes simplex infection, conserved biosystemHerpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are very common worldwide, with the prevalence of HSV-1 reaching up to 80%-90%. Primary infection with HSV takes place in the mucosa, followed by the establishme...

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), organism-specific biosystemHypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a primary myocardial disorder with an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance that is characterized by hypertrophy of the left ventricles with histological feat...

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), conserved biosystemHypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a primary myocardial disorder with an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance that is characterized by hypertrophy of the left ventricles with histological feat...

IL23-mediated signaling events, organism-specific biosystem IL23-mediated signaling events

IL27-mediated signaling events, organism-specific biosystem IL27-mediated signaling events

Immune System, organism-specific biosystemHumans are exposed to millions of potential pathogens daily, through contact, ingestion, and inhalation. Our ability to avoid infection depends on the adaptive immune system and during the first crit...

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), organism-specific biosystemInflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract due to environmental and geneti...

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), conserved biosystemInflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract due to environmental and geneti...

Influenza A, organism-specific biosystemInfluenza is a contagious respiratory disease caused by influenza virus infection. Influenza A virus is responsible for both annual seasonal epidemics and periodic worldwide pandemics. Novel strains ...

Influenza A, conserved biosystemInfluenza is a contagious respiratory disease caused by influenza virus infection. Influenza A virus is responsible for both annual seasonal epidemics and periodic worldwide pandemics. Novel strains ...

Insulin resistance, organism-specific biosystemInsulin resistance is a condition where cells become resistant to the effects of insulin. It is often found in people with health disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic...

Integrated Pancreatic Cancer Pathway, organism-specific biosystemAn integrated pathway model which displays the protein-protein interactions (PPIs) among the relevant proteins for pancreatic cancer. This pathway is a collection of different mechanistic protein pat...

Legionellosis, organism-specific biosystemLegionellosis is a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila and other legionella species. Two distinct clinical and epidemiological syndromes are associated...

Legionellosis, conserved biosystemLegionellosis is a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila and other legionella species. Two distinct clinical and epidemiological syndromes are associated...

Leishmaniasis, organism-specific biosystemLeishmania is an intracellular protozoan parasite of macrophages that causes visceral, mucosal, and cutaneous diseases. The parasite is transmitted to humans by sandflies, where they survive and prol...

Leishmaniasis, conserved biosystemLeishmania is an intracellular protozoan parasite of macrophages that causes visceral, mucosal, and cutaneous diseases. The parasite is transmitted to humans by sandflies, where they survive and prol...

MAPK signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

MAPK signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

MAPK signaling pathway, conserved biosystemThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is a highly conserved module that is involved in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration. Mammals e...

Malaria, organism-specific biosystemPlasmodium protozoa are parasites that account for malaria infection. Sporozoite forms of the parasite are injected by mosquito bites under the skin and are carried to the liver where they develop in...

Malaria, conserved biosystemPlasmodium protozoa are parasites that account for malaria infection. Sporozoite forms of the parasite are injected by mosquito bites under the skin and are carried to the liver where they develop in...

Matrix Metalloproteinases, organism-specific biosystemMatrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent endopeptidases; other family members are adamalysins, serralysins, and astacins. The MMPs belong to a larger family of proteases known as the metzi...

MicroRNAs in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, organism-specific biosystemThis pathway shows the role of microRNAs in the process of cardiac hypertrophy. MicroRNA targets were predicted by the TargetScan algorithm, and the predicted interactions are shown in red dashed lin...

Monoamine Transport, organism-specific biosystem Monoamine Transport

NF-kappa B signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemNuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) is the generic name of a family of transcription factors that function as dimers and regulate genes involved in immunity, inflammation and cell survival. There are...

NF-kappa B signaling pathway, conserved biosystemNuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) is the generic name of a family of transcription factors that function as dimers and regulate genes involved in immunity, inflammation and cell survival. There are...

NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemSpecific families of pattern recognition receptors are responsible for detecting various pathogens and generating innate immune responses. The intracellular NOD-like receptor (NLR) family contains mo...

NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, conserved biosystemSpecific families of pattern recognition receptors are responsible for detecting various pathogens and generating innate immune responses. The intracellular NOD-like receptor (NLR) family contains mo...

Natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity, organism-specific biosystemNatural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system that are involved in early defenses against both allogeneic (nonself) cells and autologous cells undergoing various forms of stre...

Natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity, conserved biosystemNatural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system that are involved in early defenses against both allogeneic (nonself) cells and autologous cells undergoing various forms of stre...

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), organism-specific biosystemNon-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a spectrum ranging from simple steatosis to more severe steatohepatitis with hepatic inflammation and fibrosis, known as nonalcoholic steatohepati...

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), conserved biosystemNon-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a spectrum ranging from simple steatosis to more severe steatohepatitis with hepatic inflammation and fibrosis, known as nonalcoholic steatohepati...

Notch Signaling Pathway, organism-specific biosystemThe Notch signaling pathway is an evolutionarily conserved, intercellular signaling mechanism essential for proper embryonic development in all metazoan organisms in the Animal kingdom. The Notch pro...

Osteoclast differentiation, organism-specific biosystemThe osteoclasts, multinucleared cells originating from the hematopoietic monocyte-macrophage lineage, are responsible for bone resorption. Osteoclastogenesis is mainly regulated by signaling pathways...

Osteoclast differentiation, conserved biosystemThe osteoclasts, multinucleared cells originating from the hematopoietic monocyte-macrophage lineage, are responsible for bone resorption. Osteoclastogenesis is mainly regulated by signaling pathways...

Pertussis, organism-specific biosystemPertussis, also known as whooping cough, is an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by a bacteria called Bordetella Pertussis. The characteristic symptoms are paroxysmal cough, inspiratory whe...

Pertussis, conserved biosystemPertussis, also known as whooping cough, is an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by a bacteria called Bordetella Pertussis. The characteristic symptoms are paroxysmal cough, inspiratory whe...

Proteoglycans in cancer, organism-specific biosystemMany proteoglycans (PGs) in the tumor microenvironment have been shown to be key macromolecules that contribute to biology of various types of cancer including proliferation, adhesion, angiogenesis a...

Proteoglycans in cancer, conserved biosystemMany proteoglycans (PGs) in the tumor microenvironment have been shown to be key macromolecules that contribute to biology of various types of cancer including proliferation, adhesion, angiogenesis a...

RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway, organism-specific biosystemSpecific families of pattern recognition receptors are responsible for detecting viral pathogens and generating innate immune responses. Non-self RNA appearing in a cell as a result of intracellular ...

RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway, conserved biosystemSpecific families of pattern recognition receptors are responsible for detecting viral pathogens and generating innate immune responses. Non-self RNA appearing in a cell as a result of intracellular ...

RXR and RAR heterodimerization with other nuclear receptor, organism-specific biosystem RXR and RAR heterodimerization with other nuclear receptor

Continued here:
TNF tumor necrosis factor [ (human)]