StemCell Therapy

1. American Hospital Association (AHA), Samueli Institute. More Hospitals Offering Complementary and Alternative Medicine Services. September 7, 2011 + Kralovec, Peter. Interview with Director at American Hospital Association. E-mail interview with Sita Ananth. June 20, 2014.

2. Clarke TC, Black LI, Stussman BJ, Barnes PM, Nahin RL. Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 20022012. National health statistics reports; no 79. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.2015.

Callahan, L.F., Wiley-Exley E.K., Mielenz, T.J., Brady, T.J., Xiao, C., Currey S.S. et al. (2009, April) Use of complementary and alternative medicine among patients with arthritis. Preventing Chronic Disease;6(2). Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2009/apr/08_0070.htm. Barnes PM, Bloom B, Nahin R. CDC National Health Statistics Report #12.Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007. December 10, 2008

3.Dusek, J. & Knutson, L. (2012, May). The impact of integrative medicine on inpatient satisfaction at Abbott Northwestern Hospital. International Research Congress on Integrative Medicine and Health, Portland, OR.

Casida J., & Lemanski, S. (2010). An evidence-based review on guided imagery utilization in adult cardiac surgery. Clinical Scholars Review, 3(1), 23-31.

4.Guarneri E, Horrigan B, Pechura C. The Efficacy and Cost Effectiveness of Integrative Medicine: A Review of the Medical and Corporate Literature. The Bravewell Collaborative Web site. Published June 2010. http://www. bravewell.org/integrative_medicine/efficacy_cost. Accessed July 8, 2014

Looking for additional statistics? Two helpful resources: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health | NCCIH National Academy of Medicine (formally Institute of Medicine)

Highlighted Journals Integrative Medicine: A Clinicians Journal (IMCJ) Global Advances in Health and Medicine (GAHMJ) Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing

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What is Integrative Medicine? - AIHM

operates within the Division of Biological Sciences. Its faculty investigate molecular aspects of biological phenomena that operate on a cellular scale. The Department currently represents research on a wide range of biological problems and systems - its internationally recognized strengths include:

- invertebrate and vertebrate development - plant development and plant pathogen interactions - molecular biology - immunology - microbiology - cellular structure and function - yeast genetics

The department administers the Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate program in the Molecular Biosciences Graduate Training Program Cluster. The cluster combines five programs: Cell and Molecular Biology (CMB), Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (BMB), Human Genetics (HG), Genetics, Genomics & Systems Biology (GGSB), and Development, Regeneration, and Stem Cell Biology (DRSB). MGCB also plays key roles in the undergraduate biology curricula at the University.

The University of Chicago's Grossman Institute of Neuroscience and the Dept. of Molecular Genetic and Cell Biology jointly invite applications for tenure-track faculty in Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience. Please see http://tinyurl.com/pu4oc46 for more information and to apply.

Lucia B. Rothman-Denes, PhD, Professor in the Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, has been elected by her peers to be a member of the National Academy of Sciences, May 2, 2014

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MGCB SEMINARS

JANUARY - MAY 2016

All seminars are at 4:00 PM in CLSC 101 (*unless indicated).

JANUARY 26, 2016 Principles of genome defense Hiten Madhani, University of California, San Francisco

FEBRUARY 23, 2016 Genome structure and integrity Doug Koshland, University of California, Berkeley

MARCH 17, 2016 Measuring the Intracellular Dew Point: Phase Transitions in Cells Cliff Brangwynne, Princeton University

APRIL 21, 2016 11th ANNUAL HASELKORN LECTURE Morality in the Microbial World the Social lives of Bacterial Cells E. Peter Greenberg, University of Washington

APRIL 26, 2016 TBA Stirling Churchman, Harvard University

MAY 26, 2016 Specificity and Evolution of Protein-Protein Interactions Michael Laub, MIT

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Track 1:Pain Management and Rehabilitation

The specialty of Pain Medicine, or Algiatry, is a discipline within the field of medicine that is concerned with the prevention of pain, and the evaluation, treatment, and rehabilitation of persons in pain. The typical pain management team includesmedical practitioners,Pharmacists, Clinical Psychologist, occupational therapists, physician assistant, nurse practitioners and clinical nurse specialists. Pain can be managed using pharmacological or interventional procedures by usingpain reliefs. There are many interventional procedures typically used forchronic back paininclude epidural steroid injections, facet joint Injections, neurolytic blocks, spinal cord stimulators and intrathecal drug delivery system implants. The Management goals when treatingback painare to achieve maximal reduction in pain intensity as rapidly as possible, to restore the individuals ability to function in everyday activities, to help the patient cope with residual pain, to assess for side effects of therapy, and to facilitate the patients passage through the legal and socioeconomic impediments to recovery. For many the goal is to keep the pain to a manageable level to progress with rehabilitation, which can then lead to long term pain relief. Also, for some people the goal is to use non-surgical therapies to manage the pain and avoid major surgery, while for others surgery may be the quickest way to feel better.Migrainestypically present with self-limited, recurrent severe headacheassociated with autonomic symptoms. About 15-30% of people with migraines experience migraines with an aura. And those who have migraines with aura also frequently have migraines without aura. There are four possible phases of Headache: The prodrome, which occur hours or days before the headache, Theaura, which immediately precedes the headache, The pain phase also known as headache phase, The postdrome, the effects experienced following the end of a migraine attack.

Related Conferences of Pain Management and Rehabilitation:

2nd World Congress and Exhibition on Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance, October 13-15, 2016 Manchester, UK; 8th Annual Pharma Middle East Congress, October 10-12, 2016 Dubai, UAE; International Conference on Pharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE; 5th International Conference and Exhibition on Pharmacology and Ethnopharmacology, March 27-29, 2017 Orlando, USA; World Congress on Biotherapeutics, May 25-26, 2017 Mexico city, Mexico; International Conference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th International Conferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting on Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE.

Track 2:NSAIDs & Analgesics

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are a drug class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic (pain-killing) and antipyretic (fever-reducing) effects, and, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects. The termnonsteroidaldistinguishes these drugs fromsteroids, which, among a broad range of other effects, have a similareicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. First used in 1960, the term served to distance new drugs from steroid relatediatrogenictragedies. The most prominent members of this group of drugs,aspirin,ibuprofenandnaproxen, are all availableover the counterin most countries.Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally not considered an NSAID because it has only little anti-inflammatory activity. It treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the body. Most NSAIDs inhibit the activity ofcyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) andcyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and thereby, the synthesis ofprostaglandinsandthromboxanes. It is thought that inhibiting COX-2 leads to the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects and that those NSAIDs also inhibiting COX-1, particularly aspirin, may cause gastrointestinal bleeding and ulcers.

Ananalgesicorpainkilleris any member of the group ofdrugsused to achieve analgesia, relief frompain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on theperipheralandcentralnervous systems. They are distinct fromanesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate,sensation. Analgesics includeparacetamol(known in North America asacetaminophenor simply APAP), thenon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) such as thesalicylates, andopioiddrugs such asmorphineandoxycodone. In choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; theWorld Health Organization(WHO)pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step. Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: Forneuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such astricyclic antidepressantsandanticonvulsants.

Related Conferences of Classification of Pain Relief Analgesics:

7th Annual Global Pharma, August 22-24, 2016 New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Conference on Pharmacovigilance & Pharmaceutical Industry, August 22-24, 2016 Vienna, Austria; Conference on Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; Conference on Drug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference on Neuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference on Biopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference on Pharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 3:Physical and Physiological Approaches in Pain Medicine

Pain medicineandrehabilitationemploys numerous physical techniques like thermal agents and electrotherapy, such as therapeutic exercise and behavioral medical care, traditional pharmacotherapy to treat pain, sometimes as a district of knowledge domain or multidisciplinary program Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation has been found to be ineffective forlower back pain, but it would facilitate withdiabetic neuropathy.Acupuncture involves the insertion and manipulation of needles into specific points on the body to alleviate pain or for therapeutic functions. Research has not found proof that light therapy like low level optical device medical care is a good medical care forpain reliefCognitive behavioral Therapy(CBT) for pain helps patients with pain to know the link between one's physiology (e.g., pain and muscle tension), thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. A meta-analysis of studies that used techniques targeted around the thought of mindfulness, concluded, "Findings counsel that MBIs decrease the intensity of pain forchronic painpatients." Occupational therapists could use a range of interventions as well as training program, relaxation, goal setting, drawback determination, planning, and carry this out at intervals each cluster and individual settings. Therapists may go at intervals a clinic setting, or within the community as well as the work, school, home and health care centers. Activity therapists could assess activity performance before and when intervention, as a live of effectiveness and reduction in disability.

Related Conferences of Physical and Physiological Approaches in Pain Medicine:

InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th InternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE. Conference on Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; Conference onDrug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 4:Anesthesia as Pain Drug

In the practice ofmedicine(especiallysurgery) anddentistry,anesthesia is a temporary induced state with one or more ofanalgesia (relief from or prevention ofpain),paralysis(muscle relaxation),amnesia(loss of memory), andunconsciousness. Apatientunder the effects of anestheticdrugs is referred to as beinganesthetized. Anesthesia is freedom from pain. Each year, millions of people in the United States undergo some form of medical treatment requiring anesthesia. Anesthesia, in the hands of qualified professionals like Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists (CRNAs), is a safe and effective means of alleviating pain during nearly every type of medical procedure. Anesthesia care is not confined to surgery alone. The process also refers to activities that take place both before and after an anesthetic is given. In the majority of cases, anesthesia is administered by a CRNA. CRNAs work with your surgeon, dentist or podiatrist, and may work with an anesthesiologist (physician anesthetist). CRNAs are advanced practice registered nurses with specialized graduate-level education in anesthesiology. For more than 150 years, nurse anesthetists have been administering anesthesia in all types of surgical cases, using all anesthetic techniques and practicing in every setting in which anesthesia is administered. Anesthesia enables the painless performance of medical procedures that would cause severe or intolerable pain to an un-anesthetized patient.

Related Conferences ofAnesthesia:

Conference and Exhibition onPharmacology and Ethnopharmacology, March 27-29, 2017 Orlando, USA; World Congress on Biotherapeutics, May 25-26, 2017 Mexico city, Mexico; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th InternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting on Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE; 7th AnnualGlobal Pharma, August 22-24, 2016 New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Conference on Pharmacovigilance & Pharmaceutical Industry, August 22-24, 2016 Vienna, Austria; Conference on Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France.

Track 5:Pain Syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome(CTS) may be a medical condition within which the median nerve is compressed because it travels through the carpus at the carpal tunnel and causes pain, symptom and tingling, within a part of the hand that receives sensation from the median nerve.Piriformis syndromemay be a neuromuscular disorder that happens once the Sciatic nerve is compressed or otherwise irritated by the piriformis muscle inflicting pain, tingling and symptom within the buttocks and on the trail of the nerve descending the lower thigh and into the leg. Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) it's a chronic general un-wellness characterized by severe pain, swelling, and changes within the skin. CRPS usually worsens over time. it's going to at the start associate effect on} an arm or leg and unfold throughout the body; thirty fifth of individuals report symptoms throughout their whole body. Alternative potential effects include: general involuntary dysregulation; animal tissue edema; system, endocrine, or medical specialty manifestations; and changes in urological or gi operate.Central pain syndrome may be a neurologic condition caused by injury or malfunction within the Central system (CNS) that causes a sensitization of the pain system. The extent of pain and also the area unit as affected are associated with the reason behind the injury. Compartment syndrome is augmented pressure inside one in all the body's compartments that contains muscles and nerves. Compartment syndrome most typically happens in compartments within the leg or arm. There are unit 2 main sorts of compartment syndrome:acuteandchronic. Fibromyalgia(FM) may be a medical condition characterized by chronic widespread pain and a heightened and painful response to pressure. Symptoms apart from pain might occur, resulting in the utilization of the term Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS). Alternative symptoms embrace feeling tired to a degree that ordinary activities area unit affected, sleep disturbance, and joint stiffness. Some folks additionally report problem with swallowing bowl and bladder abnormalities.

Related Conferences of Pain Syndrome:

Conference onDrug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 6:Pharmacological Approaches for Pain

There are several pharmacological interventions that may be accustomed manage pain in arthritis. However, in choosing the acceptable approach, the practitioner must take into account to consider the efficacy. Adverse side effects, dosing frequency, patient preference, and cost in choosing medication for pain management. When a patient develops the primary signs of an inflammatory arthritis, the most priority is symptom relief, with pain being the cardinal sign of inflammation that patients most wish facilitate with. However, it has become more and more clear that for inflammatory arthropathies like RA merely treating the symptoms with non- Steroidal anti- inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or analgesics in adequate, because features of the disease that lead to damage to the joints, and then to disability will carry on uncheck. In addition to symptoms relieving drugs, patients also need disease-modifying pain drugs that have been demonstrated to slow down or stop the damaging aspects of disease There are two aims in the pharmacological treatment; firstly to reduce inflammation or modulate the auto immune response and secondly to modulate the pain response. Medications is thought-about in 5 classes: simple analgesics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Disease modifying anti-rheumatic-drugs (DMARDS), Steroids, Biologics and other relevant Adjuvant analgesics (ex. antiepileptic and antidepressants used for pain relief).

Related Conferences of Physical and Physiological Approaches in Pain Medicine:

InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th InternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE. Conference onPharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; Conference onDrug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 7:Pain Management Specialist

To a certain extent, medical practitioners have always been specialized. Specialization was common among Roman physicians. The particular system of modern medical specialties evolved gradually during the 19th century. Informal social recognition of medical specialization evolved before the formal legal system. The particular subdivision of the practice of medicine into various specialties varies from country to country, and is somewhat arbitrary. Currently, there is no single field of medicine or health care that represents the preferred approach to pain management. Indeed, the premise of pain management is that a highly multidisciplinary approach is essential. Pain management specialists are most commonly found in the following disciplines:Physiatry (also called Physical medicine and rehabilitation),Anesthesiology,Interventional radiology,Physical therapy. Specialists in psychology, psychiatry, behavioral science, and other areas may also play an important role in a comprehensive pain management program. Selection of the most appropriate type of health professional - or team of health professionals - largely depends on the patient's symptoms and the length of time the symptoms have been present.

Related Conferences ofPain Management Specialist:

Conference and Exhibition onPharmacology and Ethnopharmacology, March 27-29, 2017 Orlando, USA; WorldCongress on Biotherapeutics, May 25-26, 2017 Mexico city, Mexico; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9thInternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 8:Chronic Pain and Prevention

Chronic painispainthat lasts a drawn-out time. In medication, the excellence betweenacute painand chronic pain has historically has been determined by an discretional interval of your time since onset; the 2 most typically used markers being 3 months and 6 months since onset, though some theorists and researchers have placed the transition from acute to chronic pain at twelve months.Electrical Nerve Stimulationfor Chronic Pain may be a procedure that uses AN electrical current to treat chronicpain managementPeripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) space 2 varieties of electrical nerve stimulation. In either, atiny low generator sends electrical pulses to the nerves (In peripheral nerve stimulation) or to the funiculus (in funiculus stimulation) These pulses interfere with the nerve impulses that cause you to feel pain.

Related Conferences of Chronic Pain Management:

Conference and Exhibition onPharmacology and Ethnopharmacology, March 27-29, 2017 Orlando, USA; WorldCongress on Biotherapeutics, May 25-26, 2017 Mexico city, Mexico; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9thInternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE; 7th AnnualGlobal Pharma, August 22-24, 2016 New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Conference onPharmacovigilance & Pharmaceutical Industry, August 22-24, 2016 Vienna, Austria; Conference onPharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France.

Track 9: Pain Medications

Narcoticsalso referred to asopioidpain relievers are used only for pain that's severe and is not helped by other forms of painkillers. When used rigorously and underneath a doctor's direct care, these medications are often effective at reducing pain. Narcotics work by binding to receptors into the brain that blocks the sensation of pain. When used rigorously and underneath a doctor's direct care, they'll be effective at reducing pain. Antidepressant medication for treatment of depression as well as other different disorders that will occur alone or together with depression, likechronic pain,sleep disorders, oranxiety disorders.Antidepressantsare medication used for the treatment of major depressive disorder and different conditions, chronic pain and neuropathic pain. Anticonvulsants, or anti-seizure medications, work as adjuvant analgesics. In different words, they can treat some forms of chronic pain even if they're not designed for that purpose. whereas the most use ofanti-seizuremedication is preventing seizures,anticonvulsantsdo seem to be effective at treating certain forms of chronic pain. These include neuropathic pain, like peripheral neuropathy, and chronic headaches like migraines.

Related Conferences ofPain Medications:

Conference onDrug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 10:Pain Management Nursing

PerianesthesiaNursingcould be a nursing specialty practice area involved with providing medical care to patients undergoing or convalescent fromanesthesia. Perianesthesia nursing encompasses many subspecialty observe space and represents a various range of practice environment and skill sets. Pain managementnurses are typically thought-about to be perianesthesia nurses, given the cooperative nature of their work with anesthetists and also thefact that a large proportion of acute pain issues are surgery related. However, distinct pain management certifications exist through the American Society forPain ManagementNurses.

Related Conferences ofPain Management Nursing:

InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th InternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE. Conference onPharmacognosy, Phytochemistry & Natural Products, August 29-31, 2016 Sao Paulo, Brazil; Conference onDrug Formulation & Bioavailability, September 05-06, 2016 Beijing, China; Conference onNeuropharmacology, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onBiopharmaceutics and Biologic Drugs, September 14-16, 2016 San Antonio, Texas, USA; Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE.

Track 11:Orofacial Pain

Orofaical painis a general term covering anypainwhich is felt in the mouth, jaws and the face. Orofacial pain is a commonsymptom, and there are many causes.Orofacial pain has been defined as "pain localized to the region above the neck, in front of the ears and below theorbitomeatal line, as well as pain within theoral cavity,pain of dental origin and temporomandibular disorders".It is estimated that over 95% of cases of orofacial pain result from dental causes (i.e.toothachecaused bypulpitisor adental abscess).However, some orofacial pain conditions may involve areas outside this region, e.g. temporal pain in TMD. Toothache, or odontalgia, is any pain perceived in the teeth or their supporting structures (i.e. theperiodontium). Toothache is therefore a type of orofacial pain.Craniofacialpain is an overlapping topic which includes pain perceived in the head, face, and related structures, sometimes includingneck pain.All other causes of orofacial pain are rare in comparison, although the fulldifferential diagnosisis extensive.

Related Conferences ofOrofacial Pain:

2nd World Congress and Exhibition onAntibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance, October 13-15, 2016 Manchester, UK; 8th AnnualPharma Middle East Congress, October 10-12, 2016 Dubai, UAE; International Conference onPharmaceutical Method Development and Validation, November 24-25, 2016 Dubai, UAE; 5thInternational Conference and Exhibition onPharmacology and Ethnopharmacology, March 27-29, 2017 Orlando, USA; WorldCongress on Biotherapeutics, May 25-26, 2017 Mexico city, Mexico; InternationalConference on Biotech Pharmaceuticals, October 23-25, 2017 Paris, France; 9th InternationalConferences on Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, November 20-22, 2017 Melbourne, Australia; 6th Global Experts Meeting onCardiovascular Pharmacology and Cardiac Medications, April 13-14, 2017 Dubai, UAE.

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Pain Medicine 2017 | Pain Medicine Conferences | Pain ...

Nanomedicine Overview

What if doctors had tiny tools that could search out and destroy the very first cancer cells of a tumor developing in the body? What if a cell's broken part could be removed and replaced with a functioning miniature biological machine? Or what if molecule-sized pumps could be implanted in sick people to deliver life-saving medicines precisely where they are needed? These scenarios may sound unbelievable, but they are the ultimate goals of nanomedicine, a cutting-edge area of biomedical research that seeks to use nanotechnology tools to improve human health.

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A lot of things are small in today's high-tech world of biomedical tools and therapies. But when it comes to nanomedicine, researchers are talking very, very small. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, too small even to be seen with a conventional lab microscope.

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Nanotechnology is the broad scientific field that encompasses nanomedicine. It involves the creation and use of materials and devices at the level of molecules and atoms, which are the parts of matter that combine to make molecules. Non-medical applications of nanotechnology now under development include tiny semiconductor chips made out of strings of single molecules and miniature computers made out of DNA, the material of our genes. Federally supported research in this area, conducted under the rubric of the National Nanotechnology Initiative, is ongoing with coordinated support from several agencies.

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For hundreds of years, microscopes have offered scientists a window inside cells. Researchers have used ever more powerful visualization tools to extensively categorize the parts and sub-parts of cells in vivid detail. Yet, what scientists have not been able to do is to exhaustively inventory cells, cell parts, and molecules within cell parts to answer questions such as, "How many?" "How big?" and "How fast?" Obtaining thorough, reliable measures of quantity is the vital first step of nanomedicine.

As part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Fund [nihroadmap.nih.gov], the NIH [nih.gov] has established a handful of nanomedicine centers. These centers are staffed by a highly interdisciplinary scientific crew, including biologists, physicians, mathematicians, engineers and computer scientists. Research conducted over the first few years was spent gathering extensive information about how molecular machines are built.

Once researchers had catalogued the interactions between and within molecules, they turned toward using that information to manipulate those molecular machines to treat specific diseases. For example, one center is trying to return at least limited vision to people who have lost their sight. Others are trying to develop treatments for severe neurological disorders, cancer, and a serious blood disorder.

The availability of innovative, body-friendly nanotools that depend on precise knowledge of how the body's molecular machines work, will help scientists figure out how to build synthetic biological and biochemical devices that can help the cells in our bodies work the way they were meant to, returning the body to a healthier state.

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Last Updated: January 22, 2014

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Nanomedicine Fact Sheet - National Human Genome Research ...

What are BRCA1 and BRCA2?

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are human genes that produce tumor suppressor proteins. These proteins help repair damaged DNA and, therefore, play a role in ensuring the stability of the cells genetic material. When either of these genes is mutated, or altered, such that its protein product either is not made or does not function correctly, DNA damage may not be repaired properly. As a result, cells are more likely to develop additional genetic alterations that can lead to cancer.

Specific inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 increase the risk of female breast and ovarian cancers, and they have been associated with increased risks of several additional types of cancer. Together, BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations account for about 20 to 25 percent of hereditary breast cancers (1) and about 5 to 10 percent of all breast cancers (2). In addition, mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 account for around 15 percent of ovarian cancers overall (3). Breast and ovarian cancers associated with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations tend to develop at younger ages than their nonhereditary counterparts.

A harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation can be inherited from a persons mother or father. Each child of a parent who carries a mutation in one of these genes has a 50 percent chance (or 1 chance in 2) of inheriting the mutation. The effects of mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are seen even when a persons second copy of the gene is normal.

How much does having a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation increase a womans risk of breast and ovarian cancer?

A womans lifetime risk of developing breast and/or ovarian cancer is greatly increased if she inherits a harmful mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2.

Breast cancer: About 12 percent of women in the general population will develop breast cancer sometime during their lives (4). By contrast, according to the most recent estimates, 55 to 65 percent of women who inherit a harmful BRCA1 mutation and around 45 percent of women who inherit a harmful BRCA2 mutation will develop breast cancer by age 70 years (5, 6).

Ovarian cancer: About 1.3 percent of women in the general population will develop ovarian cancer sometime during their lives (4). By contrast, according to the most recent estimates, 39 percent of women who inherit a harmful BRCA1 mutation (5, 6) and 11 to 17 percent of women who inherit a harmful BRCA2 mutation will develop ovarian cancer by age 70 years (5, 6).

It is important to note that these estimated percentages of lifetime risk are different from those available previously; the estimates have changed as more information has become available, and they may change again with additional research. No long-term general population studies have directly compared cancer risk in women who have and do not have a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation.

It is also important to note that other characteristics of a particular woman can make her cancer risk higher or lower than the average risks. These characteristics include her family history ofbreast, ovarian, and, possibly, other cancers; the specific mutation(s) she has inherited; and other risk factors, suchas her reproductivehistory. However, at this time, based on current data, none of these other factors seems to be as strong as the effect of carrying a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation.

What other cancers have been linked to mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2?

Are mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 more common in certain racial/ethnic populations than others?

Yes. For example, people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent have a higher prevalence of harmful BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations than people in the general U.S. population. Other ethnic and geographic populations around the world, such as the Norwegian, Dutch, and Icelandic peoples, also have a higher prevalence of specific harmful BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations.

In addition, limited data indicate that the prevalence of specific harmful BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may vary among individual racial and ethnic groups in the United States, including African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and non-Hispanic whites (15, 16).

Are genetic tests available to detect BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations?

Yes. Several different tests are available, including tests that look for a known mutation in one of the genes (i.e., a mutation that has already been identified in another family member) and tests that check for all possible mutations in both genes. DNA (from a blood or saliva sample) is needed for mutation testing. The sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis. It usually takes about a month to get the test results.

Who should consider genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations?

Because harmful BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations are relatively rare in the general population, most experts agree that mutation testing of individuals who do not have cancer should be performed only when the persons individual or family history suggests the possible presence of a harmful mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2.

In December 2013, the United States Preventive Services Task Force recommended that women who have family members with breast, ovarian, fallopian tube, or peritoneal cancer be evaluated to see if they have a family history that is associated with an increased risk of a harmful mutation in one of these genes (17).

Several screening tools are now available to help health care providers with this evaluation (17). These tools assess family history factors that are associated with an increased likelihood of having a harmful mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2, including:

When an individual has a family history that is suggestive of the presence of a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, it may be most informative to first test a family member who has cancer if that person is still alive and willing to be tested. If that person is found to have a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, then other family members may want to consider genetic counseling to learn more about their potential risks and whether genetic testing for mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 might be appropriate for them.

If it is not possible to confirm the presence of a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation in a family member who has cancer, it is appropriate for both men and women who do not have cancer but have a family medical history that suggests the presence of such a mutation to have genetic counseling for possible testing.

Some individualsfor example, those who were adopted at birthmay not know their family history. In cases where a woman with an unknown family history has an early-onset breast cancer or ovarian cancer or a man with an unknown family history is diagnosed with breast cancer, it may be reasonable for that individual to consider genetic testing for a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Individuals with an unknown family history who do not have an early-onset cancer or male breast cancer are at very low risk of having a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation and are unlikely to benefit from routine genetic testing.

Professional societies do not recommend that children, even those with a family history suggestive of a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, undergo genetic testing for BRCA1 or BRCA2. This is because no risk-reduction strategies exist for children, and children's risks of developing a cancer type associated with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation are extremely low. After children with a family history suggestive of a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation become adults, however, they may want to obtain genetic counseling about whether or not to undergoing genetic testing.

Should people considering genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations talk with a genetic counselor?

Genetic counseling is generally recommended before and after any genetic test for an inherited cancer syndrome. This counseling should be performed by a health care professional who is experienced in cancer genetics. Genetic counseling usually covers many aspects of the testing process, including:

How much does BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation testing cost?

The Affordable Care Act considers genetic counseling and BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation testing for individuals at high risk a covered preventive service. People considering BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation testing may want to confirm their insurance coverage for genetic tests before having the test.

Some of the genetic testing companies that offer testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may offer testing at no charge to patients who lack insurance and meet specific financial and medical criteria.

What does a positive BRCA1 or BRCA2 genetic test result mean?

BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutation testing can give several possible results: a positive result, a negative result, or an ambiguous or uncertain result.

A positive test result indicates that a person has inherited a known harmful mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 and, therefore, has an increased risk of developing certain cancers. However, a positive test result cannot tell whether or when an individual will actually develop cancer. For example, some women who inherit a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation will never develop breast or ovarian cancer.

A positive genetic test result may also have important health and social implications for family members, including future generations. Unlike most other medical tests, genetic tests can reveal information not only about the person being tested but also about that persons relatives:

What does a negative BRCA1 or BRCA2 test result mean?

A negative test result can be more difficult to understand than a positive result because what the result means depends in part on an individuals family history of cancer and whether a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation has been identified in a blood relative.

If a close (first- or second-degree) relative of the tested person is known to carry a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, a negative test result is clear: it means that person does not carry the harmful mutation that is responsible for the familial cancer, and thus cannot pass it on to their children. Such a test result is called a true negative. A person with such a test result is currently thought to have the same risk of cancer as someone in the general population.

If the tested person has a family history that suggests the possibility of having a harmful mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 but complete gene testing identifies no such mutation in the family, a negative result is less clear. The likelihood that genetic testing will miss a known harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation is very low, but it could happen. Moreover, scientists continue to discover new BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations and have not yet identified all potentially harmful ones. Therefore, it is possible that a person in this scenario with a "negative" test result actually has an as-yet unknown harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation that has not been identified.

It is also possible for people to have a mutation in a gene other than BRCA1 or BRCA2 that increases their cancer risk but is not detectable by the test used. People considering genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may want to discuss these potential uncertainties with a genetic counselor before undergoing testing.

What does an ambiguous or uncertain BRCA1 or BRCA2 test result mean?

Sometimes, a genetic test finds a change in BRCA1 or BRCA2 that has not been previously associated with cancer. This type of test result may be described as ambiguous (often referred to as a genetic variant of uncertain significance) because it isnt known whether this specific gene change affects a persons risk of developing cancer. One study found that 10 percent of women who underwent BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation testing had this type of ambiguous result (18).

As more research is conducted and more people are tested for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, scientists will learn more about these changes and cancer risk. Genetic counseling can help a person understand what an ambiguous change in BRCA1 or BRCA2 may mean in terms of cancer risk. Over time, additional studies of variants of uncertain significance may result in a specific mutation being re-classified as either harmful or clearly not harmful.

How can a person who has a positive test result manage their risk of cancer?

Several options are available for managing cancer risk in individuals who have a known harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. These include enhanced screening, prophylactic (risk-reducing) surgery, and chemoprevention.

Enhanced Screening. Some women who test positive for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may choose to start cancer screening at younger ages than the general population or to have more frequent screening. For example, some experts recommend that women who carry a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation undergo clinical breast examinations beginning at age 25 to 35 years (19). And some expert groups recommend that women who carry such a mutation have a mammogram every year, beginning at age 25 to 35 years.

Enhanced screening may increase the chance of detecting breast cancer at an early stage, when it may have a better chance of being treated successfully. Women who have a positive test result should ask their health care provider about the possible harms of diagnostic tests that involve radiation (mammograms or x-rays).

Recent studies have shown that MRI may be more sensitive than mammography for women at high risk of breast cancer (20, 21). However, mammography can also identify some breast cancers that are not identified by MRI (22), and MRI may be less specific (i.e., lead to more false-positive results) than mammography. Several organizations, such as the American Cancer Society and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network, now recommend annual screening with mammography and MRI for women who have a high risk of breast cancer.

No effective ovarian cancer screening methods currently exist. Some groups recommend transvaginal ultrasound, blood tests for the antigen CA-125, and clinical examinations for ovarian cancer screening in women with harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations, but none of these methods appears to detect ovarian tumors at an early enough stage to reduce the risk of dying from ovarian cancer (23). For a screening method to be considered effective, it must have demonstrated reduced mortality from the disease of interest. This standard has not yet been met for ovarian cancer screening.

The benefits of screening for breast and other cancers in men who carry harmful mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 is also not known, but some expert groups recommend that men who are known to carry a harmful mutation undergo regular mammography as well as testing for prostate cancer. The value of these screening strategies remains unproven at present.

Prophylactic (Risk-reducing) Surgery. Prophylactic surgery involves removing as much of the "at-risk" tissue as possible. Women may choose to have both breasts removed (bilateral prophylactic mastectomy) to reduce their risk of breast cancer. Surgery to remove a woman's ovaries and fallopian tubes (bilateral prophylactic salpingo-oophorectomy) can help reduce her risk of ovarian cancer. Removing the ovaries also reduces the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women by eliminating a source of hormones that can fuel the growth of some types of breast cancer.

No evidence is available regarding the effectiveness of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy in reducing breast cancer risk in men with a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation or a family history of breast cancer. Therefore, bilateral prophylactic mastectomy for men at high risk of breast cancer is considered an experimental procedure, and insurance companies will not normally cover it.

Prophylactic surgery does not completely guarantee that cancer will not develop because not all at-risk tissue can be removed by these procedures. Some women have developed breast cancer, ovarian cancer, or primary peritoneal carcinomatosis (a type of cancer similar to ovarian cancer) even after prophylactic surgery. Nevertheless, the mortality reduction associated with this surgery is substantial: Research demonstrates that women who underwent bilateral prophylactic salpingo-oophorectomy had a nearly 80 percent reduction in risk of dying from ovarian cancer, a 56 percent reduction in risk of dying from breast cancer (24), and a 77 percent reduction in risk of dying from any cause (25).

Emerging evidence (25) suggests that the amount of protection that removing the ovaries and fallopian tubes provides against the development of breast and ovarian cancer may be similar for carriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, in contrast to earlier studies (26).

Chemoprevention. Chemoprevention is the use of drugs, vitamins, or other agents to try to reduce the risk of, or delay the recurrence of, cancer. Although two chemopreventive drugs (tamoxifen and raloxifene) have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to reduce the risk of breast cancer in women at increased risk, the role of these drugs in women with harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations is not yet clear.

Data from three studies suggest that tamoxifen may be able to help lower the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers (27), including the risk of cancer in the opposite breast among women previously diagnosed with breast cancer (28, 29). Studies have not examined the effectiveness of raloxifene in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers specifically.

Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) are thought to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer by about 50 percent both in the general population and in women with harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations (30).

What are some of the benefits of genetic testing for breast and ovarian cancer risk?

There can be benefits to genetic testing, regardless of whether a person receives a positive or a negative result.

The potential benefits of a true negative result include a sense of relief regarding the future risk of cancer, learning that one's children are not at risk of inheriting the family's cancer susceptibility, and the possibility that special checkups, tests, or preventive surgeries may not be needed.

A positive test result may bring relief by resolving uncertainty regarding future cancer risk and may allow people to make informed decisions about their future, including taking steps to reduce their cancer risk. In addition, people who have a positive test result may choose to participate in medical research that could, in the long run, help reduce deaths from hereditary breast and ovarian cancer.

What are some of the possible harms of genetic testing for breast and ovarian cancer risk?

The direct medical harms of genetic testing are minimal, but knowledge of test results may have harmful effects on a persons emotions, social relationships, finances, and medical choices.

People who receive a positive test result may feel anxious, depressed, or angry. They may have difficulty making choices about whether to have preventive surgery or about which surgery to have.

People who receive a negative test result may experience survivor guilt, caused by the knowledge that they likely do not have an increased risk of developing a disease that affects one or more loved ones.

Because genetic testing can reveal information about more than one family member, the emotions caused by test results can create tension within families. Test results can also affect personal life choices, such as decisions about career, marriage, and childbearing.

Violations of privacy and of the confidentiality of genetic test results are additional potential risks. However, the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and various state laws protect the privacy of a persons genetic information. Moreover, the federal Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, along with many state laws, prohibits discrimination based on genetic information in relation to health insurance and employment, although it does not cover life insurance, disability insurance, or long-term care insurance.

Finally, there is a small chance that test results may not be accurate, leading people to make decisions based on incorrect information. Although inaccurate results are unlikely, people with these concerns should address them during genetic counseling.

What are the implications of having a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation for breast and ovarian cancer prognosis and treatment?

A number of studies have investigated possible clinical differences between breast and ovarian cancers that are associated with harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations and cancers that are not associated with these mutations.

There is some evidence that, over the long term, women who carry these mutations are more likely to develop a second cancer in either the same (ipsilateral) breast or the opposite (contralateral) breast than women who do not carry these mutations. Thus, some women with a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation who develop breast cancer in one breast opt for a bilateral mastectomy, even if they would otherwise be candidates for breast-conserving surgery. In fact, because of the increased risk of a second breast cancer among BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers, some doctors recommend that women with early-onset breast cancer and those whose family history is consistent with a mutation in one of these genes have genetic testing when breast cancer is diagnosed.

Breast cancers in women with a harmful BRCA1 mutation are also more likely to be "triple-negative cancers" (i.e., the breast cancer cells do not have estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, or large amounts of HER2/neu protein), which generally have poorer prognosis than other breast cancers.

Because the products of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are involved in DNA repair, some investigators have suggested that cancer cells with a harmful mutation in either of these genes may be more sensitive to anticancer agents that act by damaging DNA, such as cisplatin. In preclinical studies, drugs called PARP inhibitors, which block the repair of DNA damage, have been found to arrest the growth of cancer cells that have BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. These drugs have also shown some activity in cancer patients who carry BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations, and researchers are continuing to develop and test these drugs.

What research is currently being done to help individuals with harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations?

Research studies are being conducted to find new and better ways of detecting, treating, and preventing cancer in people who carry mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. Additional studies are focused on improving genetic counseling methods and outcomes. Our knowledge in these areas is evolving rapidly.

Information about active clinical trials (research studies with people) for individuals with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations is available on NCIs website. The following links will retrieve lists of clinical trials open to individuals with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations.

NCIs Cancer Information Service (CIS) can also provide information about clinical trials and help with clinical trial searches.

Do inherited mutations in other genes increase the risk of breast and/or ovarian tumors?

Yes. Although harmful mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are responsible for the disease in nearly half of families with multiple cases of breast cancer and up to 90 percent of families with both breast and ovarian cancer, mutations in a number of other genes have been associated with increased risks of breast and/or ovarian cancers (2, 31). These other genes include several that are associated with the inherited disorders Cowden syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, and Fanconi anemia, which increase the risk of many cancer types.

Most mutations in these other genes are associated with smaller increases in breast cancer risk than are seen with mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. However, researchers recently reported that inherited mutations in the PALB2 gene are associated with a risk of breast cancer nearly as high as that associated with inherited BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations (32). They estimated that 33 percent of women who inherit a harmful mutation in PALB2 will develop breast cancer by age 70 years. The estimated risk of breast cancer associated with a harmful PALB2 mutation is even higher for women who have a family history of breast cancer: 58 percent of those women will develop breast cancer by age 70 years.

PALB2, like BRCA1 and BRCA2, is a tumor suppressor gene. The PALB2 gene produces a protein that interacts with the proteins produced by the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes to help repair breaks in DNA. Harmful mutations in PALB2 (also known as FANCN) are associated with increased risks of ovarian, pancreatic, and prostate cancers in addition to an increased risk of breast cancer (13, 33, 34). Mutations in PALB2, when inherited from each parent, can cause a Fanconi anemia subtype, FA-N, that is associated with childhood solid tumors (13, 33, 35).

Although genetic testing for PALB2 mutations is available, expert groups have not yet developed specific guidelines for who should be tested for, or the management of breast cancer risk in individuals with, PALB2 mutations.

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BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer Risk and Genetic Testing Fact ...

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Article

The Arabidopsis CERK1associated kinase PBL27 connects chitin perception to MAPK activation

These authors contributed equally to this work as first authors

These authors contributed equally to this work as third authors

Chitin receptor CERK1 transmits immune signals to the intracellular MAPK cascade in plants. This occurs via phosphorylation of MAPKKK5 by the CERK1associated kinase PBL27, providing a missing link between pathogen perception and signaling output.

Chitin receptor CERK1 transmits immune signals to the intracellular MAPK cascade in plants. This occurs via phosphorylation of MAPKKK5 by the CERK1associated kinase PBL27, providing a missing link between pathogen perception and signaling output.

CERK1associated kinase PBL27 interacts with MAPKKK5 at the plasma membrane.

Chitin perception induces disassociation of PBL27 and MAPKKK5.

PBL27 functions as a MAPKKK kinase.

Phosphorylation of MAPKKK5 by PBL27 is enhanced upon phosphorylation of PBL27 by CERK1.

Phosphorylation of MAPKKK5 by PBL27 is required for chitininduced MAPK activation in planta.

Kenta Yamada, Koji Yamaguchi, Tomomi Shirakawa, Hirofumi Nakagami, Akira Mine, Kazuya Ishikawa, Masayuki Fujiwara, Mari Narusaka, Yoshihiro Narusaka, Kazuya Ichimura, Yuka Kobayashi, Hidenori Matsui, Yuko Nomura, Mika Nomoto, Yasuomi Tada, Yoichiro Fukao, Tamo Fukamizo, Kenichi Tsuda, Ken Shirasu, Naoto Shibuya, Tsutomu Kawasaki

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Accreditation Statement

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PeerPoint Medical Education Institute designates the live format for this educational activity for AMA PRA Category 1 Credits. Physicians should only claim credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

Conference series invites participants from all over the world to attend "6th International Conference and Exhibition on Immunology" October 24-26, 2016 Chicago, USA includes prompt keynote presentations, Oral talks, Poster presentations and Exhibitions.

Presenters can availupto 20 CME credits..

The annual International Conference on Immunology offer a unique platform for academia, Societies and Industries interested in immunology and Biomedical sciences to share the latest trends and important issues in the field. Immunology Summit-2016 brings together the Global leaders in Immunology and relevant fields to present their research at this exclusive scientific program. The Immunology Conference hosting presentations from editors of prominent refereed journals, renowned and active investigators and decision makers in the field of Immunology. Immunology Summit 2016 Organizing Committee also intended to encourage Young investigators at every career stage to submit abstracts reporting their latest scientific findings in oral and poster sessions.

Track 1:ClinicalImmunology: Current & Future Research

Immunology is the study of the immune system. The immune system is how all animals, including humans, protect themselves against diseases. The study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system is clinical immunology. The disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories:

Immunodeficiency, in this immune system fails to provide an adequate response.

Autoimmunity, in this immune system attacks its own host's body.

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Track 2:Cancer and Tumor Immunobiology

The immune system is the bodys first line of defence against most diseases and unnatural invaders.Cancer Immunobiologyis a branch ofimmunologyand it studies interactions between theimmune systemandcancer cells. These cancer cells, through subtle alterations, become immortal malignant cells but are often not changed enough to elicit an immune reaction.Understanding how the immune system worksor does not workagainst cancer is a primary focus of Cancer Immunology investigators. Certain cells of the immune system, including natural killer cells, dendritic cells (DCs) and effector T cells, are capable of driving potent anti-tumour responses.

Tumor Immunobiology

The immune system can promote the elimination of tumours, but often immune responses are modulated or suppressed by the tumour microenvironment. The Tumour microenvironment is an important aspect of cancer biology that contributes to tumour initiation, tumour progression and responses to therapy. Cells and molecules of the immune system are a fundamental component of the tumour microenvironment. Importantly, therapeutic strategies can harness the immune system to specifically target tumour cells and this is particularly appealing owing to the possibility of inducing tumour-specific immunological memory, which might cause long-lasting regression and prevent relapse in cancer patients. The composition and characteristics of the tumour micro environment vary widely and are important in determining the anti-tumour immune response. Tumour cells often induce an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which favours the development of immuno suppressive populations of immune cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells.

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Track 3:Inflammation and Therapies

Inflammation is the body's attempt at self-protection; the aim being to remove harmful stimuli, including damaged cells, irritants, or pathogens - and begin the healing process. In Inflammation the body's whiteblood cellsand substances they produce protect us from infection with foreign organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. However, in some diseases, likearthritis, the body's defense system, the immune system triggers an inflammatory response when there are no foreign invaders to fight off. In these diseases, called autoimmune diseases, the body's normally protective immune system causes damage to its own tissues. The body responds as if normal tissues are infected or somehow abnormal. Inflammation involves immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators. The purpose of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the original insult and the inflammatory process, and to initiate tissue repair. signs of acute inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function

Therapies

Inflammation Therapy is a treatment for chronic disease involving a combination of lifestyle factors and medications designed to enable the immune system to fight the disease. Techniques used include heat therapy, cold therapy, electrical stimulation, traction, massage, and acupuncture. Heat increases blood flow and makes connective tissue more flexible. It temporarily decreases joint stiffness, pain, and muscle spasms. Heat also helps reduce inflammation and the buildup of fluid in tissues (edema). Heat therapy is used to treat inflammation (including various forms of arthritis), muscle spasm, and injuries such as sprains and strains. Cold therapy Applying cold may help numb tissues and relieve muscle spasms, pain due to injuries, and low back pain or inflammation that has recently developed. Cold may be applied using an ice bag, a cold pack, or fluids (such as ethyl chloride) that cool by evaporation. The therapist limits the time and amount of cold exposure to avoid damaging tissues and reducing body temperature (causing hypothermia). Cold is not applied to tissues with a reduced blood supply (for example, when the arteries are narrowed by peripheral arterial disease).

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Track 4:Molecular and Structural Immunology

Molecular Immunology

Molecular immunology deals with immune responses at cellular and molecular level. Molecular immunology has been evolved for better understanding of the sub-cellular immune responses for prevention and treatment of immune related disorders and immune deficient diseases. Journal of molecular immunology focuses on the invitro and invivo immunological responses of the host. Molecular Immunology focuses on the areas such as immunological disorders, invitro and invivo immunological host responses, humoral responses, immunotherapies for treatment of cancer, treatment of autoimmune diseases such as Hashimotos disease, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Treatment of Immune deficiencies such as hypersensitivities, chronic granulomatous disease, diagnostic immunology research aspects, allografts, etc..

Structural Immunology

Host immune system is an important and sophisticated system, maintaining the balance of host response to "foreign" antigens and ignorance to the normal-self. To fulfill this achievement the system manipulates a cell-cell interaction through appropriate interactions between cell-surface receptors and cell-surface ligands, or cell-secreted soluble effector molecules to their ligands/receptors/counter-receptors on the cell surface, triggering further downstream signaling for response effects. T cells and NK cells are important components of the immune system for defending the infections and malignancies and maintaining the proper response against over-reaction to the host. Receptors on the surface of T cells and NK cells include a number of important protein molecules, for example, T cell receptor (TCR), co-receptor CD8 or CD4, co-stimulator CD28, CTLA4, KIR, CD94/NKG2, LILR (ILT/LIR/CD85), Ly49, and so forth.

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Track 5:Transplantation Immunology

Transplantation is an act of transferring cells, tissues, or organ from one site to other. Graft is implanted cell, tissue or organ. Development of the field of organ and tissue transplantation has accelerated remarkably since the human major histocompatibility complex (mhc) was discovered in 1967. Matching of donor and recipient for mhc antigens has been shown to have a significant positive effect on graft acceptance. The roles of the different components of the immune system involved in the tolerance or rejection of grafts and in graft-versus-host disease have been clarified. These components include: antibodies, antigen presenting cells, helper and cytotoxic t cell subsets, immune cell surface molecules, signaling mechanisms and cytokines that they release. The development of pharmacologic and biological agents that interfere with the alloimmune response and graft rejection has had a crucial role in the success of organ transplantation. Combinations of these agents work synergistically, leading to lower doses of immunosuppressive drugs and reduced toxicity. Significant numbers of successful solid organ transplants include those of the kidneys, liver, heart and lung.

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Track 6:Infectious Diseases, Emerging and Reemerging diseases: Confronting Future Outbreaks

Infectious diseasesare disorders caused by organisms such as bacteria, viruses,fungior parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They're normally harmless or even helpful, but under certain conditions, some organisms may causedisease.Someinfectious diseasescan be passed from person to person. Many infectious diseases, such asmeaslesand chickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from infectious diseases.

There are four main kinds of germs:

Bacteria - one-celled germs that multiply quickly and may release chemicals which can make you sick

Viruses- capsules that contain genetic material, and use your own cells to multiply

Fungi - primitive plants, like mushrooms or mildew

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Track 7:Autoimmune Diseases

An autoimmune disease develops when your immune system, which defends your body against disease, decides your healthy cells are foreign. As a result, your immune system attacks healthy cells. An autoimmune disorder may result in the destruction of body tissue, abnormal growth of an organ, Changes in organ function. Depending on the type, an autoimmune disease can affect one or many different types of body tissue. Areas often affected by autoimmune disorders include Blood vessels, Connective tissues, Endocrineglands such as the thyroid or pancreas, Joints Muscles, Red blood cells, Skin It can also cause abnormal organ growth and changes in organ function. There are as many as 80 types of autoimmune diseases. Many of them have similar symptoms, which makes them very difficult to diagnose. Its also possible to have more than one at the same time. Common autoimmune disorders include Addison's disease, Dermatomyositis, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Multiple sclerosis, Myasthenia gravis, Pernicious anemia, Reactive arthritis. Autoimmune diseases usually fluctuate between periods of remission (little or no symptoms) and flare-ups (worsening symptoms). Currently, treatment for autoimmune diseases focuses on relieving symptoms because there is no curative therapy.

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Track 8:Viral Immunology: Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases

Immunology is the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo.

Viruses are strongly immunogenic and induces 2 types of immune responses; humoral and cellular. The repertoire of specificities of T and B cells are formed by rearrangements and somatic mutations. T and B cells do not generally recognize the same epitopes present on the same virus. B cells see the free unaltered proteins in their native 3-D conformation whereas T cells usually see the Ag in a denatured form in conjunction with MHC molecules. The characteristics of the immune reaction to the same virus may differ in different individuals depending on their genetic constitutions.

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6thInternational Conference andExhibition onImmunology,Oct 24-26, 2016, USA;InternationalConference onAutoimmunity, Oct 24-26, 2016, UK;5thEuropeanImmunologyConference, July 21-23, 2016, Germany; InternationalConference onCancer ImmunologyandImmunotherapy, July 28-30, 2016, Australia;International Conference onMucosal Immunology, July 28-29, 2016, Australia; 2nd InternationalConference on Antibodiesand Therapeutics, July 11-12, 2016 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; InternationalConference on Tumor Immunologyand Immunotherapy, July 28-30, 2016 Melbourne, Australia; InternationalConference on Cancer Immunologyand Immunotherapy, July 28-30, 2016 Melbourne, Australia

Track 9:Pediatric Immunology

A child suffering from allergies or other problems with his immune system is referred as pediatric immunology. Childs immune system fights against infections. If the child has allergies, their immune system wrongly reacts to things that are usually harmless. Pet dander, pollen, dust, mold spores, insect stings, food, and medications are examples of such things. This reaction may cause their body to respond with health problems such as asthma, hay fever, hives, eczema (a rash), or a very severe and unusual reaction calledanaphylaxis. Sometimes, if your childs immune system is not working right, he may suffer from frequent, severe, and/or uncommon infections. Examples of such infections are sinusitis (inflammation of one or more of the sinuses), pneumonia (infection of the lung), thrush (a fungus infection in the mouth), and abscesses (collections of pus surrounded by inflamed tissue) that keep coming back.

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Track 10:Immunotherapy & Cancer Immunotherapy: From Basic Biology to Translational Research

Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a persons immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways:

Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins

Some types of immunotherapy are also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy. In the last few decades immunotherapy has become an important part of treating some types of cancer. Newer types of immune treatments are now being studied, and theyll impact how we treat cancer in the future. Immunotherapy includes treatments that work in different ways. Some boost the bodys immune system in a very general way. Others help train the immune system to attack cancer cells specifically.

Cancer immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to treat cancer. The main types of immunotherapy now being used to treat cancer include:

Monoclonal antibodies: these are man-made versions of immune system proteins. Antibodies can be very useful in treating cancer because they can be designed to attack a very specific part of a cancer cell.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors: these drugs basically take the brakes off the immune system, which helps it recognize and attack cancer cells.

Cancer vaccines: vaccines are substances put into the body to start an immune response against certain diseases. We usually think of them as being given to healthy people to help prevent infections. But some vaccines can help prevent or treat cancer.

Other, non-specific immunotherapies: these treatments boost the immune system in a general way, but this can still help the immune system attack cancer cells.

Immunotherapy drugs are now used to treat many different types of cancer. For more information about immunotherapy as a treatment for a specific cancer, please see our information on that type of cancer.

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Track 11:Immunology and Diabetes

Immunologyis the study of the immune system, which is responsible for protecting the body from foreign cells such as viruses, bacteria and parasites. Immune system cells called T and B lymphocytes identify and destroy these invaders. Thelymphocytesusually recognize and ignore the bodys own tissue (a condition called immunological self-tolerance), but certain autoimmune disorders trigger a malfunction in the immune response causing an attack on the bodys own cells due to a loss ofimmune tolerance.

Type 1 diabetes is anautoimmune diseasethat occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks insulin-producing islet cells in the pancreas. This attack begins years before type 1 diabetes becomes evident, so by the time someone is diagnosed, extensive damage has already been done and the ability to produceinsulinis lost.

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Track 12:Immune Tolerance

Immunological toleranceis the failure to mount animmuneresponse to an antigen. It can be: Natural or "self"tolerance. This is the failure (a good thing) to attack the body's own proteins and other antigens. If the immunesystem should respond to "self",an autoimmune diseasemay result. Natural or "self" tolerance: Induced tolerance: This is tolerance to externalantigens that has been created by deliberately manipulating theimmune system.

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InternationalConference onMucosalImmunology, July 28-29, 2016, Australia; International Conference onAllergy, March 29-30, 2016, Spain; 2ndInternationalCongress onNeuroimmunology&Therapeutics, Dec 01-03, 2016, USA;7th InternationalConference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, September 14-15, 2016 Amsterdam, Netherlands; Asthma EventsSeptember 14-15, 2016 Amsterdam, Netherlands;2nd InternationalExhibition on Antibodiesand Therapeutics, July 11-12, 2016 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; InternationalConference on Tumor Immunologyand Immunotherapy, July 28-30, 2016 Melbourne, Australia; InternationalConference on Cancer Immunologyand Immunotherapy, July 28-30, 2016 Melbourne, Australia; Immunology events InternationalcongressonImmunology, August 21-26, 2016, Australia; British society for Immunology Annual Immunology Congress, 6-9 Dec, 2016, Liverpool, UK

Track 13:Vaccines and Immunotherapy

Vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to particular disease. It contains certain agent that not only resembles a disease causing microorganism but it also stimulates bodys immune system to recognise the foreign agents. Vaccines are dead or inactivated organisms or purified products derived from them. whole organism vaccines purified macromolecules as vaccines,recombinant vaccines, DNA vaccines. The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and "remembers" them. The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. In order to provide best protection, children are recommended to receive vaccinations as soon as their immune systems are sufficiently developed to respond to particular vaccines with additional "booster" shots often required to achieve "full immunity".

Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a persons immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways:

Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells

Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins

Some types of immunotherapy are also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy. In the last few decades immunotherapy has become an important part of treating some types of cancer. Newer types of immune treatments are now being studied, and theyll impact how we treat cancer in the future. Immunotherapy includes treatments that work in different ways. Some boost the bodys immune system in a very general way. Others help train the immune system to attack cancer cells specifically. Immunotherapy works better for some types of cancer than for others. Its used by itself for some of these cancers, but for others it seems to work better when used with other types of treatment.

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Track 14:Immunologic Techniques, Microbial Control and Therapeutics

Immunological techniques include both experimental methods to study the immune system and methods to generate or use immunological reagents as experimental tools. The most common immunological methods relate to the production and use of antibodies to detect specific proteins in biological samples. Various laboratory techniques exist that rely on the use of antibodies to visualize components of microorganisms or other cell types and to distinguish one cell or organism type from another. Immunologic techniques are used for: Quantitating and detectingantibodiesand/orantigens, Purifying immunoglobulins, lymphokines and other molecules of the immune system, Isolating antigens and other substances important in immunological processes, Labelling antigens and antibodies, Localizing antigens and/or antibodies in tissues and cells, Detecting, and fractionatingimmunocompetent cells, Assaying forcellular immunity, Documenting cell-cell interactions, Initiating immunity and unresponsiveness, Transplantingtissues, Studying items closely related to immunity such as complement,reticuloendothelial systemand others, Molecular techniques for studying immune cells and theirreceptors, Imaging of the immune system, Methods for production or their fragments ineukaryoticandprokaryotic cells.

Microbial control:

Control of microbial growth, as used here, means to inhibit or prevent growth of microorganisms. This control is achieved in two basic ways: (1) by killing microorganisms or (2) by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. Control of growth usually involves the use of physical or chemical agents which either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms. Agents which kill cells are called cidal agents; agents which inhibit the growth of cells (without killing them) are referred to as static agents. Thus, the term bactericidal refers to killing bacteria, and bacteriostatic refers to inhibiting the growth of bacterial cells. A bactericide kills bacteria, a fungicide kills fungi, and so on. In microbiology, sterilization refers to the complete destruction or elimination of all viable organisms in or on a substance being sterilized. There are no degrees of sterilization: an object or substance is either sterile or not. Sterilization procedures involve the use of heat, radiation or chemicals, or physical removal of cells.

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Track 15:Immunodeficiency

Immunodeficiency is a state in which theimmune system's ability to fightinfectious diseaseis compromised or entirely absent. Immunodeficiency disorders prevent your body from adequately fighting infections and diseases. An immunodeficiency disorder also makes it easier for you to catch viruses and bacterial infections in the first place. Immunodeficiency disorders are often categorized as either congenital or acquired. A congenital, or primary, disorder is one you were born with. Acquired, or secondary, disorders are disorders you get later in life. Acquired disorders are more common thancongenital disorders. Immune system includes the following organs: spleen, tonsils, bone marrow, lymph nodes. These organs make and release lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are white blood cells classified as B cells and T cells. B and T cells fight invaders called antigens. B cells release antibodies specific to the disease your body detects. T cells kill off cells that are under attack by disease. An immunodeficiency disorder disrupts your bodys ability to defend itself against these antigens. Types of immunodeficiency disorder are Primary immunodeficiency disorders & Secondary immunodeficiency disorders.

Primary immunodeficiency disorders are immune disorders you are born with. Primary disorders include:

X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA)

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID)

Severe combined immunodeficiency(SCID)

Secondary disorders happen when an outside source, such as a toxic chemical or infection, attacks your body. Severe burns and radiation also can cause secondary disorders.

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Worlds Leading Immunology Congress | Conferenceseries

Abstract

Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties. Chamomile preparations are commonly used for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids. Essential oils of chamomile are used extensively in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Many different preparations of chamomile have been developed, the most popular of which is in the form of herbal tea consumed more than one million cups per day. In this review we describe the use of chamomile in traditional medicine with regard to evaluating its curative and preventive properties, highlight recent findings for its development as a therapeutic agent promoting human health.

Keywords: chamomile, dietary agents, flavonoids, polyphenols, human health

The interplay of plants and human health has been documented for thousands of years (13). Herbs have been integral to both traditional and non-traditional forms of medicine dating back at least 5000 years (2, 46). The enduring popularity of herbal medicines may be explained by the tendency of herbs to work slowly, usually with minimal toxic side effects. One of the most common herbs used for medicinal purposes is chamomile whose standardized tea and herbal extracts are prepared from dried flowers of Matricaria species. Chamomile is one of the oldest, most widely used and well documented medicinal plants in the world and has been recommended for a variety of healing applications (7). Chamomile is a native of the old World and is a member of the daisy family (Asteraceae or Compositae). The hollow, bright gold cones of the flowers are packed with disc or tubular florets and are ringed with about fifteen white ray or ligulate florets, widely represented by two known varieties viz. German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) and Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) (8) . In this review we will discuss the use and possible merits of chamomile, examining its historical use and recent scientific and clinical evaluations of its potential use in the management of various human ailments.

Different classes of bioactive constituents are present in chamomile, which have been isolated and used as medicinal preparations and cosmetics (9). The plant contains 0.24%1.9% volatile oil, composed of a variety of separate oils. When exposed to steam distillation, the oil ranges in color from brilliant blue to deep green when fresh but turns to dark yellow after storage. Despite fading, the oil does not lose its potency. Approximately 120 secondary metabolites have been identified in chamomile, including 28 terpenoids and 36 flavonoids (10, 11). The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the German chamomile flowers are the terpenoids -bisabolol and its oxide azulenes including chamazulene and acetylene derivatives. Chamazulene and bisabolol are very unstable and are best preserved in an alcoholic tincture. The essential oil of Roman chamomile contains less chamazulene and is mainly constituted from esters of angelic acid and tiglic acid. It also contains farnesene and -pinene. Roman chamomile contains up to 0.6% of sesquiterpene lactones of the germacranolide type, mainly nobilin and 3-epinobilin. Both -bisabolol, bisabolol oxides A and B and chamazulene or azulenesse, farnesene and spiro-ether quiterpene lactones, glycosides, hydroxycoumarins, flavanoids (apigenin, luteolin, patuletin, and quercetin), coumarins (herniarin and umbelliferone), terpenoids, and mucilage are considered to be the major bio-active ingredients (12, 13). Other major constituents of the flowers include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin, quercetin, patuletin as glucosides and various acetylated derivatives. Among flavonoids, apigenin is the most promising compound. It is present in very small quantities as free apigenin, but predominantly exists in the form of various glycosides (1418).

Chamomile is known to be used in various forms of its preparations. Dry powder of chamomile flower is recommended and used by many people for traditionally established health problems. Medicinal ingredients are normally extracted from the dry flowers of chamomile by using water, ethanol or methanol as solvents and corresponding extracts are known as aqueous, ethanolic (alcoholic) and/or methanolic extracts. Optimum chamomile extracts contain about 50 percent alcohol. Normally standardized extracts contain 1.2% of apigenin which is one of the most effective bioactive agents. Aqueous extracts, such as in the form of tea, contain quite low concentrations of free apigenin but include high levels of apigenin-7-O-glucoside. Oral infusion of chamomile is recommended by the German Commission E (19, 20).Chamomile tea is one of the worlds most popular herbal teas and about a million cups are consumed every day. Tea bags of chamomile are also available in the market, containing chamomile flower powder, either pure or blended with other popular medicinal herbs. Chamomile tincture may also be prepared as one part chamomile flower in four parts of water having 12% grain alcohol, which is used to correct summer diarrhea in children and also used with purgatives to prevent cramping. Chamomile flowers are extensively used alone, or combined with crushed poppy-heads, as a poultice or hot foment for inflammatory pain or congestive neuralgia, and in cases of external swelling, such as facial swelling associated with underlying infection or abscess. Chamomile whole plant is used for making herb beers, and also for a lotion, for external application in toothache, earache, neuralgia and in cases of external swelling (20). It is also known to be used as bath additive, recommended for soothing ano-genital inflammation (21). The tea infusion is used as a wash or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat (22, 23). Inhalation of the vaporized essential oils derived from chamomile flowers is recommended to relieve anxiety, general depression. Chamomile oil is a popular ingredient of aromatherapy and hair care (24, 25). Roman chamomile is widely used in cosmetic preparations and in soothing and softening effect on the skin (26, 27).

Traditionally, chamomile has been used for centuries as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, mild astringent and healing medicine (28). As a traditional medicine, it is used to treat wounds, ulcers, eczema, gout, skin irritations, bruises, burns, canker sores, neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatic pain, hemorrhoids, mastitis and other ailments (29, 30). Externally, chamomile has been used to treat diaper rash, cracked nipples, chicken pox, ear and eye infections, disorders of the eyes including blocked tear ducts, conjunctivitis, nasal inflammation and poison ivy (31, 32). Chamomile is widely used to treat inflammations of the skin and mucous membranes, and for various bacterial infections of the skin, oral cavity and gums, and respiratory tract. Chamomile in the form of an aqueous extract has been frequently used as a mild sedative to calm nerves and reduce anxiety, to treat hysteria, nightmares, insomnia and other sleep problems (33). Chamomile has been valued as a digestive relaxant and has been used to treat various gastrointestinal disturbances including flatulence, indigestion, diarrhea, anorexia, motion sickness, nausea, and vomiting (34, 35). Chamomile has also been used to treat colic, croup, and fevers in children (36). It has been used as an emmenagogue and a uterine tonic in women. It is also effective in arthritis, back pain, bedsores and stomach cramps.

The flowers of chamomile contain 12% volatile oils including alpha-bisabolol, alpha-bisabolol oxides A & B, and matricin (usually converted to chamazulene and other flavonoids which possess anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties (12, 19, 35, 36). A study in human volunteers demonstrated that chamomile flavonoids and essential oils penetrate below the skin surface into the deeper skin layers (37). This is important for their use as topical antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) agents. One of chamomiles anti-inflammatory activities involve the inhibition of LPS-induced prostaglandin E(2) release and attenuation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme activity without affecting the constitutive form, COX-1 (38).

Most evaluations of tumor growth inhibition by chamomile involve studies with apigenin which is one of the bioactive constituents of chamomile. Studies on preclinical models of skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer have shown promising growth inhibitory effects (3943). In a recently conducted study, chamomile extracts were shown to cause minimal growth inhibitory effects on normal cells, but showed significant reductions in cell viability in various human cancer cell lines. Chamomile exposure induced apoptosis in cancer cells but not in normal cells at similar doses (18). The efficacy of the novel agent TBS-101, a mixture of seven standardized botanical extracts including chamomile has been recently tested. The results confirm it to have a good safety profile with significant anticancer activities against androgen-refractory human prostrate cancer PC-3 cells, both in vitro and in vivo situation (44).

Common cold (acute viral nasopharyngitis) is the most common human disease. It is a mild viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system. Typically common cold is not life-threatening, although its complications (such as pneumonia) can lead to death, if not properly treated. Studies indicate that inhaling steam with chamomile extract has been helpful in common cold symptoms (45); however, further research is needed to confirm these findings.

It has been suggested that regular use of flavonoids consumed in food may reduce the risk of death from coronary heart disease in elderly men (46). A study assessed the flavonoid intake of 805 men aged 6584 years who were followed up for 5 years. Flavonoid intake (analyzed in tertiles) was significantly inversely associated with mortality from coronary heart disease and showed an inverse relation with incidence of myocardial infarction. In another study (47), on twelve patients with cardiac disease who underwent cardiac catheterization, hemodynamic measurements obtained prior to and 30 minutes after the oral ingestion of chamomile tea exhibited a small but significant increase in the mean brachial artery pressure. No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed after chamomile consumption. Ten of the twelve patients fell into a deep sleep shortly after drinking the beverage. A large, well-designed randomized controlled trial is needed to assess the potential value of chamomile in improving cardiac health.

An apple pectin-chamomile extract may help shorten the course of diarrhea in children as well as relieve symptoms associated with the condition (47). Two clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of chamomile for the treatment of colic in children. Chamomile tea was combined with other herbs (German chamomile, vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) for administration. In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 68 healthy term infants who had colic (2 to 8 weeks old) received either herbal tea or placebo (glucose, flavoring). Each infant was offered treatment with every bout of colic, up to 150 mL/dose, no more than three times a day. After 7 days of treatment, parents reported that the tea eliminated the colic in 57% of the infants, whereas placebo was helpful in only 26% (P<0.01). No adverse effects with regard to the number of nighttime awakenings were noted in either group (48). Another study examined the effects of a chamomile extract and apple pectin preparation in 79 children (age 0.55.5 y) with acute, non-complicated diarrhea who received either the chamomile/pectin preparation (n = 39) or a placebo (n = 40) for 3 days. Diarrhea ended sooner in children treated with chamomile and pectin (85%), than in the placebo group (58%) (49). These results provide evidence that chamomile can be used safely to treat infant colic disorders.

Topical applications of chamomile have been shown to be moderately effective in the treatment of atopic eczema (50). It was found to be about 60% as effective as 0.25% hydrocortisone cream (51). Roman chamomile of the Manzana type (Kamillosan (R)) may ease discomfort associated with eczema when applied as a cream containing chamomile extract. The Manzana type of chamomile is rich in active ingredients and does not exhibit chamomile-related allergenic potential. In a partially double-blind, randomized study carried out as a half-side comparison, Kamillosan(R) cream was compared with 0.5% hydrocortisone cream and a placebo consisting only of vehicle cream in patients suffering from medium-degree atopic eczema (52). After 2 weeks of treatment, Kamillosan(R) cream showed a slight superiority over 0.5% hydrocortisone and a marginal difference as compared to placebo. Further research is needed to evaluate the usefulness of topical chamomile in managing eczema.

Chamomile is used traditionally for numerous gastrointestinal conditions, including digestive disorders, "spasm" or colic, upset stomach, flatulence (gas), ulcers, and gastrointestinal irritation (53). Chamomile is especially helpful in dispelling gas, soothing the stomach, and relaxing the muscles that move food through the intestines. The protective effect of a commercial preparation (STW5, Iberogast), containing the extracts of bitter candy tuft, lemon balm leaf, chamomile flower, caraway fruit, peppermint leaf, liquorice root, Angelica root, milk thistle fruit and greater celandine herb, against the development of gastric ulcers has been previously reported (54). STW5 extracts produced a dose dependent anti-ulcerogenic effect associated with a reduced acid output, an increased mucin secretion, an increase in prostaglandin E (2) release and a decrease in leukotrienes. The results obtained demonstrated that STW5 not only lowered gastric acidity as effectively as a commercial antacid, but was more effective in inhibiting secondary hyperacidity (54).

Studies suggest that chamomile ointment may improve hemorrhoids. Tinctures of chamomile can also be used in a sitz bath format. Tincture of Roman chamomile may reduce inflammation associated with hemorrhoids (55, 56).

It has been claimed that consumption of chamomile tea boosts the immune system and helps fight infections associated with colds. The health promoting benefits of chamomile was assessed in a study which involved fourteen volunteers who each drank five cups of the herbal tea daily for two consecutive weeks. Daily urine samples were taken and tested throughout the study, both before and after drinking chamomile tea. Drinking chamomile was associated with a significant increase in urinary levels of hippurate and glycine, which have been associated with increased antibacterial activity (57). In another study, chamomile relieved hypertensive symptoms and decreased the systolic blood pressure significantly, increasing urinary output (58). Additional studies are needed before a more definitive link between chamomile and its alleged health benefits can be established.

Inflammation is associated with many gastrointestinal disorders complaints, such as esophageal reflux, diverticular disease, and inflammatory disease (5961). Studies in preclinical models suggest that chamomile inhibits Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that can contribute to stomach ulcers (60). Chamomile is believed to be helpful in reducing smooth muscle spasms associated with various gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders. Chamomile is often used to treat mild skin irritations, including sunburn, rashes, sores and even eye inflammations (6265) but its value in treating these conditions has not been shown with evidence-based research.

Mouth ulcers are a common condition with a variety of etiologies (66). Stomatitis is a major dose-limiting toxicity from bolus 5-fluorouracil-based (5-FU) chemotherapy regimens. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial including 164 patients was conducted (22). Patients were entered into the study at the time of their first cycle of 5-FU-based chemotherapy and were randomized to receive a chamomile or placebo mouthwash thrice daily for 14 days. There was no suggestion of any stomatitis difference between patients randomized to either protocol arm. There was also no suggestion of toxicity. Similar results were obtained with another prospective trial on chamomile in this situation. Data obtained from these clinical trials did not support the pre study hypothesis that chamomile could decrease 5-FU-induced stomatitis. The results remain unclear if chamomile is helpful in this situation.

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease resulting from low bone mass (osteopenia) due to excessive bone resorption. Sufferers are prone to bone fractures from relatively minor trauma. Agents which include selective estrogen receptor modulators or SERMs, biphosphonates, calcitonin are frequently used to prevent bone loss. To prevent bone loss that occurs with increasing age, chamomile extract was evaluated for its ability to stimulate the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblastic cells. Chamomile extract was shown to stimulate osteoblastic cell differentiation and to exhibit an anti-estrogenic effect, suggesting an estrogen receptor-related mechanism (67). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

Traditionally, chamomile preparations such as tea and essential oil aromatherapy have been used to treat insomnia and to induce sedation (calming effects). Chamomile is widely regarded as a mild tranquillizer and sleep-inducer. Sedative effects may be due to the flavonoid, apigenin that binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain (68). Studies in preclinical models have shown anticonvulsant and CNS depressant effects respectively. Clinical trials are notable for their absence, although ten cardiac patients are reported to have immediately fallen into a deep sleep lasting for 90 minutes after drinking chamomile tea (47). Chamomile extracts exhibit benzodiazepine-like hypnotic activity (69). In another study, inhalation of the vapor of chamomile oil reduced a stress-induced increase in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels. Diazepam, co-administered with the chamomile oil vapor, further reduced ACTH levels, while flumazenile, a BDZ antagonist blocked the effect of chamomile oil vapor on ACTH. According to Paladini et al. (70), the separation index (ratio between the maximal anxiolytic dose and the minimal sedative dose) for diazepam is 3 while for apigenin it is 10. Compounds, other than apigenin, present in extracts of chamomile can also bind BDZ and GABA receptors in the brain and might be responsible for some sedative effect; however, many of these compounds are as yet unidentified.

Chamomile has been reported in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). But the reports seem contradictory as an earlier report suggests that German chamomile showed significant inhibition of GAD activity (71). The recent results from the controlled clinical trial on chamomile extract for GAD suggests that it may have modest anxiolytic activity in patients with mild to moderate GAD (72). Extracts of chamomile (M. recutita) possess suitable effects on seizure induced by picrotoxin (73). Furthermore, apigenin has been shown to reduce the latency in the onset of picrotoxin-induced convulsions and reduction in locomotor activity but did not demonstrate any anxiolytic, myorelaxant, or anticonvulsant activities (16).

Studies suggest that chamomile ameliorates hyperglycemia and diabetic complications by suppressing blood sugar levels, increasing liver glycogen storage and inhibition of sorbitol in the human erythrocytes (74). The pharmacological activity of chamomile extract has shown to be independent of insulin secretion (75), and studies further reveal its protective effect on pancreatic beta cells in diminishing hyperglycemia-related oxidative stress (76). Additional studies are required to evaluate the usefulness of chamomile in managing diabetes.

The efficacy of lubrication of the endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile before intubation on postoperative sore throat and hoarseness was determined in a randomized double-blind study. 161 patients whose American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status was I or II, and undergoing elective surgical, orthopedic, gynecological or urological surgeries were divided in two groups. The study group received 10 puffs of chamomile extract (Kamillosan M spray, total 370 mg of Chamomile extract) at the site of the cuff of the endotracheal tube for lubrication, while the control group did not receive any lubrication before intubations. Standard general anesthesia with tracheal intubations was given in both groups. 41 out of 81 patients (50.6%) in the chamomile group reported no postoperative sore throat in the post-anesthesia care unit compared with 45 out of 80 patients (56.3%) in the control group. Postoperative sore throat and hoarseness both in the post-anesthesia care unit and at 24 h post-operation were not statistically different. Lubrication of endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile extract spray before intubations can not prevent post operative sore throat and hoarseness (77). Similar results were obtained in another double blind study (78).

Vaginal inflammation is common in women of all ages. Vaginitis is associated with itching, vaginal discharge, or pain with urination. Atrophic vaginitis most commonly occurs in menopausal and postmenopausal women, and its occurrence is often associated with reduced levels of estrogen. Chamomile douche may improve symptoms of vaginitis with few side effects (79). There is insufficient research data to allow conclusions concerning possible potential benefits of chamomile for this condition.

The efficacy of topical use of chamomile to enhance wound healing was evaluated in a double-blind trial on 14 patients who underwent dermabrasion of tattoos. The effects on drying and epithelialization were observed, and chamomile was judged to be statistically efficacious in producing wound drying and in speeding epithelialization (80). Antimicrobial activity of the extract against various microorganisms was also assessed. The test group, on day 15, exhibited a greater reduction in the wound area when compared with the controls (61 % versus 48%), faster epithelialization and a significantly higher wound-breaking strength. In addition, wet and dry granulation tissue weight and hydroxyproline content were significantly higher. The increased rate of wound contraction, together with the increased wound-breaking strength, hydroxyproline content and histological observations, support the use of M. recutita in wound management (81). Recent studies suggest that chamomile caused complete wound healing faster than corticosteroids (82). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

Essential oils obtained from Roman chamomile are the basic ingredients of aromatherapy. Clinical trials of aromatherapy in cancer patients have shown no statistically significant differences between treated and untreated patients (83). Another pilot study investigated the effects of aromatherapy massage on the anxiety and self-esteem experience in Korean elderly women. A quasi-experimental, control group, pretest-posttest design used 36 elderly females: 16 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group. Aromatherapy massage using lavender, chamomile, rosemary, and lemon was given to the experimental group only. Each massage session lasted 20 min, and was performed 3 times per week for two 3-week periods with an intervening 1-week break. The intervention produced significant differences in the anxiety and self-esteem. These results suggest that aromatherapy massage exerts positive effects on anxiety and self-esteem (8486). However, more objective, clinical measures should be applied in a future study with a randomized placebo-controlled design.

A relatively low percentage of people are sensitive to chamomile and develop allergic reactions (87). People sensitive to ragweed and chrysanthemums or other members of the Compositae family are more prone to develop contact allergies to chamomile, especially if they take other drugs that help to trigger the sensitization. A large-scale clinical trial was conducted in Hamburg, Germany, between 1985 and 1991 to study the development of contact dermatitis secondary to exposure to a mixture of components derived from the Compositae family. Twelve species of the Compositae family, including German chamomile, were selected and tested individually when the mixture induced allergic reactions. During the study, 3,851 individuals were tested using a patch with the plant extract (88). Of these patients, 118 (3.1%) experienced an allergic reaction. Further tests revealed that feverfew elicited the most allergic reactions (70.1% of patients) followed by chrysanthemums (63.6%) and tansy (60.8%). Chamomile fell in the middle range (56.5%). A study involving 686 subjects exposed either to a sesquiterpene lactone mixture or a mixture of Compositae extracts led to allergic reactions in 4.5% of subjects (89). In another study it was shown that eye washing with chamomile tea in hay fever patients who have conjunctivitis exacerbates the eye inflammation, whereas no worsening of eye inflammation was noted when chamomile tea was ingested orally (90). Chamomile is listed on the FDA's GRAS (generally recognized as safe) list. It is possible that some reports of allergic reactions to chamomile may be due to contamination of chamomile by "dog chamomile," a highly allergenic and bad-tasting plant of similar appearance. Evidence of cross-reactivity of chamomile with other drugs is not well documented, and further study of this issue is needed prior to reaching conclusions. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or those with liver or kidney disease has not been established, although there have not been any credible reports of toxicity caused by this common beverage tea.

4. Philip RB. Herbal remedies: the good, the bad, and the ugly. J. Comp. Integ. Med. 2004;1:111.

8. Hansen HV, Christensen KIb. The common chamomile and the scentless may weed revisited. Taxon. International Association for Plant Taxonomy. 2009;Vol. 58:261264.

9. Der MA, Liberti L. Natural product medicine: A scientific guide to foods, drugs, cosmetics. George, Philadelphia: F. Stickley Co.; 1988.

10. Mann C, Staba EJ. In herbs, spices and medicinal plants: recent advances in botany. In: Craker LE, Simon JE, editors. Horticulture and Pharmacology. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press; 1986. pp. 235280.

20. Hamon N. Herbal medicine. The Chamomiles. Can Pharm J. 1989;612

28. Weiss RF. In: Herbal Medicine. Arcanum AB, editor. Beaconsfield, U.K: Beaconsfield publishers; 1988. pp. 2228.

29. Rombi M. Cento Piante Medicinali. Bergamo, Italy: Nuovo Insttuto d'Arti Grafiche; 1993. pp. 6365.

30. Awang -Dennis VC. Taylor and Francis group. New York: CRC Press; 2006. The herbs of Choice: The therapeutic use of Phytomedicinals; p. 292.

31. Martens D. Chamomile: the herb and the remedy. The Journal of the Chiropractic Academy of Homeopathy. 1995;6:1518.

32. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal medicine: A guide for health care professionals. Vol. 296. London: Pharmaceutical Press; p. 996.

36. Pea D, Montes de Oca N, Rojas S. Anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheic activity of Isocarpha cubana Blake. Pharmacologyonline. 2006;3:744749.

45. Saller R, Beschomer M, Hellenbrecht D. Dose dependency of symptomatic relief of complaints by chamomile steam inhalation in patients with common cold. Eur J Pharmacol. 1990;183:728729.

68. Avallone R, Zanoli P, Corsi L, Cannazza G, Baraldi M. Benzodiazepine compounds and GABA in flower heads of matricaria chamomilla. Phytotherapy Res. 1996;10:177179.

More here:
Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with bright future

Are you cringing? Russia for medical treatment, and such a devastating procedure? YES! Why?

Many reasons, first and foremost is that I have utter faith, confidence and assurance in Dr. Denis Fedorenko and his skills to perform a stem cell transplant. Secondly is the cost, approximately $40,000-50,000 depending on hospitalization and need for transfusions or plasma. Third, Dr. Fedorenko will treat patients with my type of MS at my age, something very few, if any, will do in the U.S. I have been communicating with Amy Peterson of Round Rock, Texas. She was the first person in the U.S. to travel to Moscow for HSCT, and has done beautifully! Read about her story athttp://amygoesninja.wordpress.com. She is an inspiration!

The following is information provided by George Goss, the guru of HSCT here in the United States. He is the go to man for questions, help, support and inspiration. He too went overseas for HSCT to Germany which is considered the best of the best. Unfortunately, Germany will not treat my type of MS.

Thank you George

This is anon-myeloablativeHSCT treatment protocol utilizing Cyclophosphamide + Rituxamab or alternatively Cyclophosphamide + Carmustine

Approximate cost USD $40,000+I have spoken with Dr. Fedorenko at Maximov in Moscow on the phone to discuss his HSCT-for-MS treatment. He is a very nice and pleasant personthat clearly is a very knowledgeable medical scientist and clinician and I found him to be open & helpful with my questions.Maximov/Perigovis a well-respected hospital facility. And the best news is that Dr. Fedorenko is definitely extremely knowledgeable and he clearly understands well all the fundamental medical science behind HSCT for treatment and cure of a wide range of hematologically-rooted autoimmune disorders. (Perhaps he can be thought of as providing a similar treatment service in Russia as Dr. Burt does in the USA.) Dr. Fedorenko is also well-published on the subject of HSCT treatment of autoimmune disorders, being involved with numerous and ongoing scientific and medical international symposiums and publications, a few such as listed here (there are many more than just these):

Based upon his publications and experience, Dr. Fedorenko has the credentials establishing him as an expert in the field of HSCT treatment for autoimmune disorders.

Here is the Maximov website: http://www.gemclinic.ru/english.php

Here is relevant info I have learned about Maximovs HSCT treatment for MS:

Maximov performs HSCT for both bone marrow malignancies (such as leukemia) and also several types of autoimmune diseases.

For autoimmune disorders they perform a non-myeloablative HSCT protocol utilizing primarily a combination of carmustine + cyclophosphamide. I never previously heard of this specific chemical combination being used, but it makes sense to me and seems like a reasonable treatment application. I dont see any red flags.

Maximov has ten treatment beds for treating a maximum of ten patients at one time. Five beds reserved for cancer patients, and five beds for patients with autoimmune disorders.

HSCT treatment criteria for autoimmune (MS) conditions:

Exclude patients greater than 50 years of age although he has agreed to accept me pending MRI review

Must be in sufficiently good health to tolerate HSCT procedure) includes good heart and renal function and generally be in good overall health),

And specifically for Multiple Sclerosis patients:

Must not be severely disabled (patient must be ambulatory with an EDSS of less than approximately 6.0) I am on the border here, so I need to get there ASAP!

Will treat any evolutionary form of MS (RRMS, SPMS and PPMS); all allowed but must demonstrate active MRI lesion activity or alternatively if without active lesions must have experienced greater than a 1.0 worsening of EDSS over a period of one year.

Maximov previously treated more than approximately 200 patients (mostly Russians) with autoimmune disorders in which a very small number (3-5) developed serious treatment complications (such as sepsis), of which everyone recovered. There have been no deaths or Treatment Related Mortality (0% TRM).

Treatment Schedule:

Maximum pre-treatment exam duration = 1 week.

Hematopoietic stem cell PBSC mobilization (with G-CSF) = 4-5 days (2-4M HSCs / kg body weight collected).

Peripheral blood stem cell collection / apheresis = 1-2 days.

Usual total in-patient hospital stay (inclusive of all procedures) = 30-45 days. An additional week is required at a nearby hotel to ensure patient health and good blood counts before traveling back to Oklahoma

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why is age so an important part of the requirement, Like I am fit the only problem I have is balance. I am 58 yrs old are we then just left to suffer this disease? I have had it now for 24 years

Dr. Fedorekno has now removed the age limit for MS. I was the oldest to receive the stem call transplant last summer and did very well! He has lifted it due to my success, and a woman age 64 is leaving next week for Moscow and treatment by Dr. Fedorekno. If you are interested, there is a Facebook page you can ask to subscribe to which has great information on HSCT. That is where I became educated. Search for Hematopioetic Stem Cell Transplant MS & Autoimmune Diseases on Facebook. Lisa

I lied, I am 59 today,but it is good to know that he has lifted the age gap, I will have to inform the rest of the group who, go for physio every week and we are in our 50s , the only thing is the price tag for the treatment is not clear, the other question is Russia the only country that is doing this treatment?

The procedure is done in the US in phase III clinical trials, but they will only accept under age 50 with mild cases of RRMS. Germany and India do myeloablative HSCT for $98,000, which is a harsher form of HSCT and takes a full year to recover physically. Non myeolablative (which I had) has been proven just as effective, with a faster recovery period of 3 months on average, 6 months at the very most. Russia costs $40,000; Italy also has just begun to accept MS patients but I do not know their fee. Dr. Fedorenko in Moscow was fabulous, and I put their standards up against any of the finest hospital in the US.

Thank you very much for that, I am off to see the specialist next month and will see what she has to say with Prof Pender, but it looks hopeful.

Neurologists are not fans of HSCT, they are not educated as to the process and the benefits. Hematologists have been doing the procedure for over 20 years for cancer, and 10 years in European countries for MS. As time and news of the success spreads, neurologist will come on board. It will take a few years, however. Do not give up! It has been a life changer and saver for me!

Hello Lisa, My name is Kim I am 55 and have had RRMS for 5 years now I am been on Copaxone for nearly a year and follow a very strict lifestyle of very low saturated fat, meditation,vitamin D,Fish oil no Dairy no meat or chicken just plant base seafood diet which was developed by Proffessor George Jelenek who has MS himself and runs retreats to teach you about this lifesyle ,It has made a huge difference to me in two years I also have acupuncture once a week as well. I had a right hip replacment almost at the same time as my diagnosis and the MS and surgery didnt like eachother so my right leg got worse after surgery. I walk with a cane when Im out but not a home , Im very interested if I would be a candidate for the Stem Cell transplant with Dr Federenko, how could I find out , thankyou Lisa , kind regards , Kim

I feel you would be an excellent candidate. I went from a cane to a walker when out very quickly. Dr. Fedorekno, or any hematologist, would require you be off Copaxone for 3 months before treatment begins. Due to lesions on the spine and brain stem, I would be wheelchair bound right now this very day. HSCT did save me, and has restored many functions, not all of course, but so many! It costs $40,000 US dollars, but my Copaxone cost more than that. Ak me any questions, I will help in any way! Contact Dr. Fedorenko at: info@gemclinic.ru Also find the Facebook page: Russia HSCT for MS & Autoimmune Diseases for more help and information. It is a wonderful group who have been, or are headed to Moscow. Lisa

Hi Lisa I am currently on Techfidera. Would I have to stop that for a certain time before going? Also, do i need a referral and records from my neurologist? Thank you Kind Regards Diana

You would need to stop all treatment, except for medications for symptoms such as Baclofen, etc, before beginning treatment. Dr. Fedorenko usually requires a 3 month cleanse of any disease modifying medications. When I first contacted him by email, I sent a brief description of my disease date and age at onset, date of diagnosis, a full list of symptoms dated from onset to the month I applied, and list of disease modifying meds and how long I had been on each. After he answered, I sent him a CD of my most recent MRI, and a print out of the above mentioned symptoms, onset and meds. Full medical records are usually too much for him to cover, so he has, in the past, gone on the patients notes on their MS. He makes a decision based on what you have told him, and the MRI. He is an amazing physician, never will you find a anyone who cares more about helping people from divesting diseases. Lisa

Hi Lisa

Thank you for your blog. I was diagnosed 1 year ago. I have 2 young children. I have pins and needles and altered sensations on my left leg and both feet. I dont currently require aids to walk. I am overweight. Does this program insist on weight loss? I am Australian and I am on Tysabri. Would I have to come off that first?

To my knowledge, Dr. Fedorenko does not require weight loss. I have had quite a few women whom I now call my best friends who were overweight and had beautifully successful stem cell transplants. I encourage you to proceed with an email to Dr. F. It is your best chance at recovery, and stopping progression, as well as regaining abilities permanently. You wold have to come off Tysabri for 3 months to wash it out of your system before beginning treatment. lisa

Hi Lisa , can I ask you how long has it been since the end of your treatment, and symptoms how are they now ,how long were you sick for during the treatment? my main fear is infection over the isolation period of the transplant and how sterile everything is in the hospital Im very interested in doing this next year ,is there a long waiting list ? Thank you very much Lisa I really appreciate all your advice , kind regards ,Kim xx

I returned home August 12th last year. My symptoms now are so much better, some I have not experienced at all! I am 85% better! Only very few signs of MS remain. I still have at stutter at times, balance issues sometimes, but that is about it! ALL other symptoms are gone no foot pain and burning, no tremors, no paralysis all gone. I suggest you go ahead and apply with Dr. Fedorenko now, as he is booking into early October right now. That will give you time to pursue more research and questions, and will give you time to change your mind should you decide to do so but I think you will not. It is a life saving/changing treatment.

I experienced NO illness during treatment, only sever fatigue. Only slight nausea for a few days, and the rest of the time I was just tired. A sleep 20 hours a day kind of tired. Your body needs the rest so it is beneficial to sleep. The hospital is amazingly, over the top sterile. While in isolation ( go back and see my pics) no one comes in without owning up. Food is twice cooked to ensure all bacteria is removed, and the room cleaned daily with anti bacterial. There is not a more infection free space on this earth. The equipment used during transplant are the newest available, made in Boston, and run on Apple computers designed for this stem cell machine. I was so fearful of going to Russia in the beginning, and all hesitation was wiped away upon meeting Dr. F. He is an angel and all he cares about is helping his patients have a good quality of life, as free of MS as they can be. He did it for me! Lisa

Hi Lisa Just to let you know after your replies from my questions< I contacted my MS clinic and spoke to my consultant and she no way should I consider having this done as they do not tell you about the procedures that went wrong, so I kave made up my mind to wait a bit longer. I am pleased that it worked out for you and it did not go wrong.

Steve

I was diagnosed just Feb of this year. I am in the process of changing Drs at the moment. My Dr did not want to speak about this procedure and literally walked out of the room while I was talking to him. The US doesnt want a cure for this. Drug companies float more $ to Drs for pushing their overpriced immune suppressant drugs than Drs salary most times. Im looking further into this option. I had to find and research it on my own.. still doing a bunch of research. It sounds a million times better than being stuck on Tysabri which will likely cause many other health issues and isnt making me any better. I would love to speak with Lisa! Im mailing my records and MRI to Germany next week.

One of my doctors received $295,500 from pharmaceuticals last year! They DO NOT want a cure. This is an incredible treatment, and gave me so much more than any drug I had been on. It is amazing and has halted the disease! I suggest you try Germany, Moscow now has a long wait list. Singapore does HSCT, as does Florence, Italy a great choice.

Thank you so much Lisa youre a wealth of information and to me this treatment seems so much more beneficial and less dangerous than the horrible MS drugs that the neurologists are prescribing . Five years ago I was an active power walker / gym junkie and now my walking is affected in my right leg I would do anything to walk normally again without a stick . My eldest son is getting married this sept and I want to be an active grandmother one day in the near future and am willing to risk anything for that, Although you have certainly eleviated a lot of my concerns ,I just hope it will help my walking and tingly fingers , thanks again Lisa ,love Kim

Hi lisa as I am one of Jehovahs Witness and dont accept Blood transfusions is it still possible to have this treatment without it? Would they give me something else if my blood count dropped very low? In Australia they give us Erythropoietin, also known as erythropoetin or erthropoyetin or EPO, is a glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production. It is a cytokine for erythrocyte precursors in the bone marrow. I would really appreciate your answer.

In Dr. Fedorenkos 280+ HSCTs, no one has ever had a blood transfusion. I am friends with 15 of the first from the U.S. to go over, and only two of us had to receive platelets. And it was not even medically necessary, but I opted to have them due to fatigue. Hope this helps! Lisa

I am just considering my options and whether or not Russia would be feasible.

I now have two good reports on Russia but more bridges have to be crossed but I have been told that I could be fitted in January 2015. I will keep you posted.

A lot of information can be gained from joining the HSCT group on Facebook, and the Russia HSCT treatment group also has a forum, but it is best to join both. The forum is moderated by two physicians so the information is accurate. And the support gained is invaluable! If you cannot find it, let me know. Lisa

Dear Lisa , may I ask how old you were when you had your stem cell transplant Im 55 but was only diagnosed at 50 I m in extremely good health apart from having MS Im terrified dr Federenko may not accept me , I dont want to get worse I still have a long time and a lot to look forward to in my life ,like becoming a grandmother in the not to distant future, thanks Lisa , I think I read somewhere that he had lifted the age and disability limit ?

My symptoms began at 54, diagnosed at 55 and HSCT at 56. I feel you are an excellent candidate, the earlier in your disease you receive treatment the better outcome. I suggest you contact him today. He is working on a paper and is out of the office for about 2 weeks. His wait list is one year, but well worth it. I asked to be admitted early if there were cancellations and I was! Also, check into joining the Facebook HSCT auto immune disease group, and the HSCT Russia forum for great info and support! Lisa

Thank you Lisa I have joined the group its a wonderful source of information , I have was and contacted George Goss as well, I get on it x

Hi Lisa, I am writing to you on behalf of my nephew, Matt, who is 35 and was diagnosed with PPMS about 7 or 8 years ago. His EDSS is currently 6.0. I have been doing extensive research about HSCT for him but he is hesitant. Can you offer any advice? He has a beautiful wife & 2 gorgeous little girls.

Join the Facebook group: Russia HSCT for MS and autoimmune diseases. A Lot of information to read in the files, contact info, and others who have been to Russia. It will be a tremendous help.

Hi Lisa, my partner has been suffering RRMS for approx 10 years. He has over the past month had his medication changed from injections to tablets due to his latest MRI showing he now has 2 lesions on his spine. We had made travel arrangements to attend Kristys seminar yesterday but had to cancel as Chris became very unwell which we have put down to the change in his meds. The new medication, Gilenya has had adverse side affects including severe headaches daily, severe constipation and a wave like feeling to add to his many symptoms of Ms. We are very interested in going to Russia for treatment and would like to go ASAP?? We attended The Sans Emergency dept Friday evening and were seen by a Dr who proceeded to ask what we wanted him to do for my partner? He went away and came back and asked the very same question a further 2 times!! Well by the third time, I blurted out, yes I know what you can do, RING CANBERRA HOSPITAL & DEMAND THAT THE COMMITTEE REINSTATE THE SCTP IMMEDIATELY!!!! He told us he could not help him and we left!

We do not want to wait until he gets more lesions and cannot walk. All info would be gratefully appreciated x Kind Regards Chris & Michelle Sydney

Join the Facebook group: Russia HSCT for MS and autoimmune diseases. A lot of information to read in the files, contact info, and others who have been to Russia. It will be a tremendous help. Lisa

I was diagnosed with primary progressive MS may 2010. My left leg is where it is bad I use stick. How do I go about getting HSCT. Paraic Heneghan

Join the Facebook group: Russia HSCT for MS and autoimmune diseases. A Loy of information to read in the files, contact info, and others who have been to Russia. It will be a tremendous help. Lisa

Do you know what other conditions he treats? Specifically, myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFIDS in the US). I tried the email to him directly but it failed.

I am not sure about that disease. Email him again in a few days. He has been inundated as a patient appeared on 60 Minutes, Australia. The mailbox is full, but he should be able to answer mail again soon.

Thank you. May I also ask how you got your diagnosis? I have been reading a comparison of MS and ME and they are almost identical in terms of symptoms and abnormal test results..I cant find a doctor. How did you find your doctor who diagnosed you?

It took a year and I went through two neurologists before I found one that was persistent. My MRIs did not have enhancing lesions. The diagnosis came through a lumbar puncture. It showed elevated igG synthesis rate, but no oligloconal bands. It takes one or both to confirm MS. I had every blood test in the book and two MRIs before they agreed to do the LP. Mine was so difficult as it came on suddenly and later in life than most MS cases, hence the PPMS diagnosis.

Hi Lisa I recently got diagnosed with MS and seriously considering the stem transplant procedure. Where do I start from?

Join the Facebook group: Russia HSCT for MS and autoimmune diseases. A Loy of information to read in the files, contact info, and others who have been to Russia. It will be a tremendous help.

Hi hi My name is Hanne And I am 45 years young. Soon to be 46 31.08.1968 I have had MS since April 1998 and I want to Take HSCT. My RRMS has been kind to me but there are a lot of things I cant do And I want to do everything Can you help me please Dr.F??? With love from Norway:-)))

Join the Facebook group: Russia HSCT for MS and autoimmune diseases. A Loy of information to read in the files, contact info, and others who have been to Russia. It will be a tremendous help. Lisa

Hi,

I am attempting to raise 40000 pounds to pay for HSCT treatment in Russia.

I plan to have coverage of my journey on local and national press.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Regards

Barry McArthur

Link:
Why Russia? | From Russia with Lisa...

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Our Ancestry Service helps you understand who you are, where you came from and your family story. We analyze, compile and distill your DNA information into reports on your Ancestry Composition, Haplogroups, Neanderthal Ancestry and provide a DNA Relatives tool to enable you to connect with people who share DNA with you.

If you have the Health + Ancestry Service you have access to the full 23andMe experience. If you only have the Ancestry Service, you can easily upgrade to the Health + Ancestry Service for $125 at any time which gives you access to all 65+ reports on ancestry, carrier status,* wellness and traits. To upgrade, log in to your 23andMe account and navigate to the Settings page. You will receive immediate access to your new health reports.

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*Our tests can be used to determine carrier status in adults from saliva collected using an FDA-cleared collection device (OrageneDX model OGD-500.001), but cannot determine if you have two copies of the genetic variant. The tests are not intended to diagnose a disease, or tell you anything about your risk for developing a disease in the future. On their own, carrier status tests are not intended to tell you anything about the health of your fetus, or your newborn child's risk of developing a particular disease later in life.

The Cystic Fibrosis carrier status test is indicated for the detection of 28 variants in the CFTR gene and is most relevant for people of Ashkenazi Jewish, European, and Hispanic/Latino descent. The Sickle Cell Anemia carrier status test is indicated for the detection of the HbS variant in the HBB gene and is most relevant for people of African descent. The carrier status tests related to hereditary hearing loss consist of two tests one indicated for the detection of two variants in the GJB2 gene which is most relevant for people of Ashkenazi Jewish and European descent, and one indicated for the detection of six variants in the SLC26A4 gene.

Get a breakdown of your global ancestry, connect with DNA relatives and more.

Receive 65+ online reports on your ancestry, traits and health - and more.

Your DNA can tell you about your family history. Reports include: Ancestry Composition, Haplogroups, Neanderthal Ancestry

Find and connect with relatives in the 23andMe database who share DNA with you.

If you are starting a family, find out if you are a carrier for an inherited condition. Example reports include: Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Anemia, Hereditary Hearing Loss

Learn how your genes play a role in your well-being and lifestyle choices. Example reports include: Deep Sleep, Lactose Intolerance, Saturated Fat and Weight

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23andMe is the first and only genetic service available directly to you that includes reports that meet FDA standards for clinical and scientific validity.

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Your DNA can tell you about your family history. See sample report. See sample report.

Learn how your genes play a role in your well-being and lifestyle choices. See sample report. See sample report.

Explore what makes you unique, from food preference to physical features. See sample report. See sample report.

If you are starting a family, find out if you are a carrier for an inherited condition. See sample report. See sample report.

1 variant in the SACS gene; relevant for French Canadian descent

1 variant in the SLC12A6 gene; relevant for French Canadian descent

3 variants in the PKHD1 gene

10 variants in the HBB gene; relevant for Cypriot, Greek, Italian, Sardinian descent

1 variant in the BLM gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

2 variants in the PMM2 gene; relevant for Danish descent

28 variants in the CFTR gene; relevant for European, Hispanic/Latino, Ashkenazi Jewish descent

2 variants in the HSD17B4 gene

1 variant in the DLD gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the IKBKAP gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

3 variants in the FANCC gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the BCS1L gene; relevant for Finnish descent

1 variant in the G6PC gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

2 variants in the SLC37A4 gene

3 variants in the ALDOB gene; relevant for European descent

3 variants in the LAMB3 gene

1 variant in the LRPPRC gene; relevant for French Canadian descent

1 variant in the SGCA gene; relevant for Finnish descent

1 variant in the SGCB gene; relevant for Southern Indiana Amish descent

1 variant in the FKRP gene; relevant for European descent

3 variants in the ACADM gene; relevant for Northern European descent

2 variants in the BCKDHB gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the CLN5 gene; relevant for Finnish descent

3 variants in the PPT1 gene; relevant for Finnish descent

3 variants in the SMPD1 gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the NBN gene; relevant for Eastern European descent

2 variants in the GJB2 gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish, European descent

6 variants in the SLC26A4 gene

23 variants in the PAH gene; relevant for Northern European descent

1 variant in the GRHPR gene; relevant for European descent

1 variant in the PEX7 gene

1 variant in the SLC17A5 gene; relevant for Finnish, Swedish descent

1 variant in the HBB gene; relevant for African descent

1 variant in the ALDH3A2 gene; relevant for Swedish descent

4 variants in the HEXA gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish, Cajun descent

4 variants in the FAH gene; relevant for French Canadian, Finnish descent

1 variant in the PCDH15 gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the CLRN1 gene; relevant for Ashkenazi Jewish descent

1 variant in the PEX1 gene

*Our tests can be used to determine carrier status in adults from saliva collected using an FDA-cleared collection device (OrageneDX model OGD-500.001), but cannot determine if you have two copies of the genetic variant. The tests are not intended to diagnose a disease, or tell you anything about your risk for developing a disease in the future. On their own, carrier status tests are not intended to tell you anything about the health of your fetus, or your newborn child's risk of developing a particular disease later in life.

Our product is in English only, and due to the applicable regulations it is only available for customers with shipping addresses in the following countries.

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23andMe - DNA Genetic Testing & Analysis

Conference Series invites all the participants from all over the world to attend"8th European Immunology Conference, June 29-July 01, 2017 Madrid, Spain, includesprompt keynote presentations, Oral talks, Poster presentations and Exhibitions.

European ImmunologyConferenceis to gathering people in academia and society interested inimmunologyto share the latest trends and important issues relevant to our field/subject area.Immunology Conferencesbrings together the global leaders in Immunology and relevant fields to present their research at this exclusive scientific program. TheImmunology Conferencehosting presentations from editors of prominent refereed journals, renowned and active investigators and decision makers in the field of Immunology.European Immunology ConferenceOrganizing Committee also invites Young investigators at every career stage to submit abstracts reporting their latest scientific findings in oral and poster sessions.

Track:1Cellular Immunology

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science ofimmunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired oradaptive immune system

The field concerning the interactions among cells and molecules of the immunesystem,and how such interactions contribute to the recognition and elimination of pathogens. Humans possess a range of non-specific mechanical and biochemical defences against routinely encountered bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi. The skin, for example, is an effective physical barrier to infection. Basic chemical defences are also present in blood, saliva, and tears, and on mucous membranes. True protection stems from the host's ability to mount responses targeted to specific organisms, and to retain a form of memory that results in a rapid, efficient response to a given organism upon a repeat encounter. This more formal sense of immunity, termed adaptive immunity, depends upon the coordinated activities of cells and molecules of the immune system.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland

Track: 2Inflammatory/Autoimmune Diseases

Autoimmune diseasescan affect almost any part of the body, including the heart, brain, nerves, muscles, skin, eyes, joints, lungs, kidneys, glands, the digestive tract, and blood vessels.

The classic sign of an autoimmune disease is inflammation, which can cause redness, heat, pain, and swelling. How an autoimmune disease affects you depends on what part of the body is targeted. If the disease affects the joints, as inrheumatoid arthritis, you might have joint pain, stiffness, and loss of function. If it affects the thyroid, as in Graves disease and thyroiditis, it might cause tiredness, weight gain, and muscle aches. If it attacks the skin, as it does in scleroderma/systemic sclerosis, vitiligo, andsystemic lupus erythematosus(SLE), it can cause rashes, blisters, and colour changes. Many autoimmune diseases dont restrict themselves to one part of the body. For example, SLE can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, heart, nerves, blood vessels, and more. Type 1 diabetes can affect your glands, eyes, kidneys, muscles, and more.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18th International Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; British Society for Immunology Congress, Dec 06-09, 2016, Liverpool, United Kingdom; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology

Track: 3T-Cells and B-Cells

T cell: A type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of adaptive immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders. Immature T cells (termed T-stem cells) migrate to the thymus gland in the neck, where they mature and differentiate into various types of mature T cells and become active in the immune system in response to a hormone called thymosin and other factors. T-cells that are potentially activated against the body's own tissues are normally killed or changed ("down-regulated") during this maturational process.There are several different types of mature T cells. Not all of their functions are known. T cells can produce substances called cytokines such as the interleukins which further stimulate the immune response. T-cell activation is measured as a way to assess the health of patients withHIV/AIDSand less frequently in other disorders. T cell are also known as T lymphocytes. The "T" stands for "thymus" -- the organ in which these cells mature. As opposed to B cells which mature in the bone marrow.B cells, also known asBlymphocytes, are a type of white bloodcellof the lymphocyte subtype. They function in thehumoral immunitycomponent of the adaptive immune system by secreting antibodies. Many B cells mature into what are called plasma cells that produce antibodies (proteins) necessary to fight off infections while other B cells mature into memory B cells. All of the plasma cells descended from a single B cell produce the same antibody which is directed against the antigen that stimulated it to mature. The same principle holds with memory B cells. Thus, all of the plasma cells and memory cells "remember" the stimulus that led to their formation. The maturation of B cells takes place in birds in an organ called the bursa of Fabricus. B cells in mammals mature largely in the bone marrow. The B cell, or B lymphocyte, is thus an immunologically important cell. It is not thymus-dependent, has a short lifespan, and is responsible for the production ofimmunoglobulins.It expresses immunoglobulins on its surface.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology

Track: 4Cancer and Tumor Immunobiology

The tumour is an important aspect of cancer biology that contributes to tumour initiation, tumour progression and responses to therapy. Cells and molecules of the immune system are a fundamental component of the tumour microenvironment. Importantly,therapeutic strategies for cancer treatmentcan harness the immune system to specifically target tumour cells and this is particularly appealing owing to the possibility of inducing tumour-specific immunological memory, which might cause long-lasting regression and prevent relapse in cancer patients.The composition and characteristics of the tumour microenvironment vary widely and are important in determining the anti-tumour immune response.Immunotherapyis a new class ofcancer treatmentthat works to harness the innate powers of the immune system to fight cancer. Because of the immune system's unique properties, these therapies may hold greater potential than current treatment approaches to fight cancer more powerfully, to offer longer-term protection against the disease, to come with fewer side effects, and to benefit more patients with more cancer

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18th International Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; British Society for Immunology Congress, Dec 06-09, 2016, Liverpool, United Kingdom; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology

Track: 5 Vaccines

A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters. There are two basictypes of vaccines: live attenuated and inactivated. The characteristics of live and inactivatedvaccinesare different, and these characteristics determine how thevaccineis used. Liveattenuatedvaccinesare produced by modifying a disease-producing (wild) virus or bacteria in a laboratory.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology

Track: 6Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy,also called biologic therapy, is a type of cancer treatment designed to boost the body's natural defences to fight the cancer. It uses materials either made by the body or in a laboratory to improve, target, or restore immune system function. Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a persons immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways:1)Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells2)Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins. Some types of immunotherapy are also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy.

In the last few decadesimmunotherapyhas become an important part of treating some types of cancer. Newer types of immune treatments are now being studied, and theyll impact how we treat cancer in the future. Immunotherapy includes treatments that work in different ways. Some boost the bodys immune system in a very general way. Others help train the immune system to attack cancer cells specifically. Immunotherapy works better for some types of cancer than for others. Its used by itself for some of these cancers, but for others it seems to work better when used with other types of treatment.

Many different types of immunotherapy are used to treat cancer. They include:Monoclonal antibodies,Adoptive cell transfer,Cytokines, Treatment Vaccines, BCG,

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (AAAAI) Annual Meeting, March 03-06, 2017, Atlanta, Georgia

Track: 7Neuro Immunology

Neuroimmunology, a branch of immunologythat deals especially with the inter relationships of the nervous system and immune responses andautoimmune disorders. It deals with particularly fundamental and appliedneurobiology,meetings onneurology,neuropathology, neurochemistry,neurovirology, neuroendocrinology, neuromuscular research,neuropharmacologyand psychology, which involve either immunologic methodology (e.g. immunocytochemistry) or fundamental immunology (e.g. antibody and lymphocyte assays).

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand

Track: 8Infectious Diseases and Immune System

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi; the diseases can be spread, directly or indirectly, from one person to another.Zoonotic diseasesare infectious diseases of animals that can cause disease when transmitted to humans. Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Some are transmitted by bites from insects or animals. And others are acquired by ingesting contaminated food or water or being exposed to organisms in the environment. Signs and symptoms vary depending on the organism causing the infection, but often include fever and fatigue. Mild complaints may respond to rest and home remedies, while some life-threatening infections may require hospitalization.

Many infectious diseases, such as measles andchickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from infectious diseases

There are four main kinds of germs:

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand

Track: 9Reproductive Immunology,

Reproductive immunologyrefers to a field of medicine that studies interactions (or the absence of them) between the immune system and components related to thereproductivesystem, such as maternal immune tolerance towards the fetus, orimmunologicalinteractions across the blood-testis barrier. The immune system refers to all parts of the body that work to defend it against harmful enemies. In people with immunological fertility problems their body identifies part of reproductive function as an enemy and sendsNatural Killer (NK) cellsto attack. A healthy immune response would only identify an enemy correctly and attack only foreign invaders such as a virus, parasite, bacteria, ect.

The concept of reproductive immunology is not widely accepted by all physicians.Those patients who have had repeated miscarriages and multiple failed IVF's find themselves exploring it's possibilities as the reason. With an increased amount of success among treating any potential immunological factors, the idea of reproductive immunology can no longer be overlooked.The failure to conceive is often due to immunologic problems that can lead to very early rejection of the embryo, often before the pregnancy can be detected by even the most sensitive tests. Women can often produce perfectly healthy embryos that are lost through repeated "mini miscarriages." This most commonly occurs in women who have conditions such asendometriosis, an under-active thyroid gland or in cases of so called "unexplained infertility." It has been estimated that an immune factor may be involved in up to 20% of couples with otherwiseunexplained infertility. These are all conditions where abnormalities of the womans immune system may play an important role.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18th International Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; British Society for Immunology Congress, Dec 06-09, 2016, Liverpool, United Kingdom; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy: Taking a Place in Mainstream Oncology (C7), March 19 - 23, 2017, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada

Track:10Auto Immunity,

Autoimmunityis the system ofimmuneresponses of an organism against its own cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an aberrantimmuneresponse is termed an autoimmune disease.

Autoimmunity is present to some extent in everyone and is usually harmless. However, autoimmunity can cause a broad range of human illnesses, known collectively as autoimmune diseases. Autoimmune diseases occur when there is progression from benign autoimmunity to pathogenicautoimmunity. This progression is determined by genetic influences as well as environmental triggers. Autoimmunity is evidenced by the presence of autoantibodies (antibodies directed against the person who produced them) and T cells that are reactive with host antigens.

Autoimmune disorders

An autoimmune disorder occurs whenthe bodys immune systemattacks and destroys healthy body tissue by mistake. There are more than 80 types of autoimmune disorders.

Causes

The white blood cells in the bodys immune system help protect against harmful substances. Examples include bacteria, viruses,toxins,cancercells, and blood and tissue from outside the body. These substances contain antigens. The immune system producesantibodiesagainst these antigens that enable it to destroy these harmful substances. When you have an autoimmune disorder, your immune system does not distinguish between healthy tissue and antigens. As a result, the body sets off a reaction that destroys normal tissues. The exact cause of autoimmune disorders is unknown. One theory is that some microorganisms (such as bacteria or viruses) or drugs may trigger changes that confuse the immune system. This may happen more often in people who have genes that make them more prone toautoimmune disorders.

An autoimmune disorder may result in:

A person may have more than one autoimmune disorder at the same time. Common autoimmune disorders include:

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18th International Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; British Society for Immunology Congress, Dec 06-09, 2016, Liverpool, United Kingdom; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy: Taking a Place in Mainstream Oncology (C7), March 19 - 23, 2017, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada

Track: 11Costimmulatory pathways in multiple sclerosis

Costimulatory moleculescan be categorized based either on their functional attributes or on their structure. The costimulatory molecules discussed in this review will be divided into (1)positive costimulatory pathways:promoting T cell activation, survival and/or differentiation; (2)negative costimulatory pathways:antagonizing TCR signalling and suppressing T cell activation; (3) as third group we will discuss themembers of the TIM family, a rather new family of cell surface molecules involved in the regulation of T cell differentiation and Treg function.Costimulatory pathways have a critical role in the regulation of alloreactivity. A complex network of positive and negative pathways regulates T cell responses. Blocking costimulation improves allograft survival in rodents and non-human primates. The costimulation blocker belatacept is being developed asimmunosuppressivedruginrenal transplantation.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (AAAAI) Annual Meeting, March 03-06, 2017, Atlanta, Georgia

Track: 12Autoimmunity and Therapathies

Autoimmunityis the system ofimmuneresponsesof an organism against its own cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an aberrantimmuneresponse is termed an autoimmune disease.

Autoimmunity is present to some extent in everyone and is usually harmless. However, autoimmunity can cause a broad range of human illnesses, known collectively as autoimmune diseases.Autoimmune diseasesoccur when there is progression from benign autoimmunity to pathogenic autoimmunity. This progression is determined by genetic influences as well as environmental triggers. Autoimmunity is evidenced by the presence of autoantibodies (antibodies directed against the person who produced them) and T cells that are reactive with host antigens.

Current treatments for allergic and autoimmune disease treat disease symptoms or depend on non-specific immune suppression. Treatment would be improved greatly by targeting the fundamental cause of the disease, that is the loss of tolerance to an otherwise innocuous antigen in allergy or self-antigen in autoimmune disease (AID). Much has been learned about the mechanisms of peripheral tolerance in recent years. We now appreciate that antigen presenting cells (APC) may be either immunogenic or tolerogenic, depending on their location, environmental cues and activation state

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (AAAAI) Annual Meeting, March 03-06, 2017, Atlanta, Georgia

Track: 13DiagnosticImmunology

Diagnostic Immunology. Immunoassays are laboratory techniques based on the detection of antibody production in response to foreign antigens. Antibodies, part of the humoral immune response, are involved in pathogen detection and neutralization.

Diagnostic immunology has considerably advanced due to the development of automated methods.New technology takes into account saving samples, reagents, and reducing cost.The future of diagnosticimmunologyfaces challenges in the vaccination field for protection against HIV and asanti-cancer therapy. Modern immunology relies heavily on the use of antibodies as highly specific laboratory reagents. The diagnosis of infectious diseases, the successful outcome of transfusions and transplantations, and the availability of biochemical and hematologic assays with extraordinary specificity and sensitivity capabilities all attest to the value of antibody detection.Immunologic methods are used in the treatment and prevention ofinfectious diseasesand in the large number of immune-mediated diseases. Advances in diagnostic immunology are largely driven by instrumentation, automation, and the implementation of less complex and more standardized procedures.

Examples of such processes are as follows:

These methods have facilitated the performance of tests and have greatly expanded the information that can be developed by a clinical laboratory. The tests are now used for clinical diagnosis and the monitoring of therapies and patient responses. Immunology is a relatively young science and there is still so much to discover. Immunologists work in many different disease areas today that include allergy, autoimmunity, immunodeficiency, transplantation, and cancer.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand

Track: 14Allergy and Therapathies

Although medications available for allergy are usually very effective, they do not cure people of allergies. Allergenimmunotherapyis the closest thing we have for a "cure" for allergy, reducing the severity of symptoms and the need for medication for many allergy sufferers. Allergen immunotherapy involves the regular administration of gradually increasing doses of allergen extracts over a period of years. Immunotherapy can be given to patients as an injection or as drops or tablets under the tongue (sublingual).Allergen immunotherapy changes the way the immune system reacts to allergens, by switching off allergy. The end result is that you become immune to the allergens, so that you can tolerate them with fewer or no symptoms. Allergen immunotherapy is not, however, a quick fix form of treatment. Those agreeing to allergen immunotherapy need to be committed to 3-5 years of treatment for it to work, and to cooperate with your doctor to minimize the frequency of side effects.Allergen immunotherapyis usually recommended for the treatment of potentially life threatening allergic reactions to stinging insects. Published data on allergen immunotherapy injections shows that venom immunotherapy can reduce the risk of a severe reaction in adults from around 60 % per sting, down to less than 10%. In Australia and New Zealand,venom immunotherapyis currently available for bee and wasp allergy. Jack Jumper Ant immunotherapy is available in Tasmania for Tasmanian residents. Allergen immunotherapy is often recommended for treatment ofallergic rhinitis

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand

Track: 15Technological Innovations inImmunology

Immunology is the branch of biomedical sciences concerned with all aspects of the immune system in all multicellular organisms. Immunology deals with physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease as well as malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders like allergies, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection andautoimmune disorders.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (AAAAI) Annual Meeting, March 03-06, 2017, Atlanta, Georgia

Track:16Antigen Processing

Antigen processingis an immunologicalprocessthat prepares antigensfor presentation to special cells of the immune system called T lymphocytes. It is considered to be a stage ofantigenpresentation pathways. The process by which antigen-presenting cells digest proteins from inside or outside the cell and display the resulting antigenic peptide fragments on cell surface MHC molecules for recognition by T cells is central to the body's ability to detect signs of infection or abnormal cell growth. As such, understanding the processes and mechanisms of antigen processing and presentation provides us with crucial insights necessary for the design ofvaccines and therapeutic strategiesto bolster T-cell responses.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 3rd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 2nd Autoimmunity Conference, Nov 9-10, 2017 Madrid, Spain; Integrating Metabolism and Immunity , May 29 - June 2, 2017 | Dublin, Ireland; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (AAAAI) Annual Meeting, March 03-06, 2017, Atlanta, Georgia

Track: 17Immunoinformatics and Systems Immunology

Immunoinformaticsis a branch ofbioinformaticsdealing with in silico analysis and modelling of immunological data and problems Immunoinformatics includes the study and design of algorithms for mapping potential B- andT-cell epitopes, which lessens the time and cost required for laboratory analysis of pathogen gene products. Using this information, an immunologist can explore the potential binding sites, which, in turn, leads to the development of newvaccines. This methodology is termed reversevaccinology and it analyses the pathogen genome to identify potential antigenic proteins.This is advantageous because conventional methods need to cultivate pathogen and then extract its antigenic proteins. Although pathogens grow fast, extraction of their proteins and then testing of those proteins on a large scale is expensive and time consuming. Immunoinformatics is capable of identifying virulence genes and surface-associated proteins.

RelatedImmunology Conferences|Immunologists Meetings|Conference Series LLC:

9thworld congress & expo on Immunology, Oct 02-04, 2017, Toronto, Canada; 3rdAntibodies and Bio Therapeutics Congress, November 02-03, 2017 Las Vegas, USA; Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18th International Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; British Society for Immunology Congress, Dec 06-09, 2016, Liverpool, United Kingdom; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy: Taking a Place in Mainstream Oncology (C7), March 19 - 23, 2017, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada

Track: 18Rheumatology

Rheumatology represents a subspecialty in internal medicine and pediatrics, which is devoted to adequate diagnosis andtherapy of rheumatic diseases(including clinical problems in joints, soft tissues, heritable connective tissue disorders, vasculitis and autoimmune diseases). This field is multidisciplinary in nature, which means it relies on close relationships with other medical specialties.The specialty of rheumatology has undergone a myriad of noteworthy advances in recent years, especially if we consider the development of state-of-the-art biological drugs with novel targets, made possible by rapid advances in the basic science of musculoskeletal diseases and improved imaging techniques.

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Molecular Immunology & Immunogenetics Congress, March 20-21, 2017 Rome, Italy; 3nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology and Therapeutics, September 18-19, 2017 Philadelphia, USA; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand; Annual Meeting on Immunology and Immunologist, July 03-05, 2017 Malyasia, Kuala lumpur; 19thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Sept 14-17, 2017, Berlin, Germany; Modelling Viral Infections and Immunity (E1) , May 1 - 4, 2017 | Estes Park, Colorado, USA; 7thInternational Conference on Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology; 18thInternational Conference on Immunology (ICI) Dec 12-13, 2016, Bangkok, Thailand

Track: 19Nutritional Immunology

Nutritional immunologyis an emerging discipline that evolved with the study of the detrimental effect of malnutrition on the immune system. The clinical and public health importance of nutritional immunology is also receiving attention. Immune system dysfunctions that result from malnutrition are, in fact, NutritionallyAcquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes(NAIDS). NAIDS afflicts millions of people in the Third World, as well as thousands in modern centers, i.e., patients with cachexia secondary to serious disease, neoplasia or trauma. The human immune system functions to protect the body against foreign pathogens and thereby preventing infection and disease. Optimal functioning of the immune system, both innate and adaptive immunity, is strongly influenced by an individuals nutritional status, with malnutrition being the most common cause of immunodeficiency in the world. Nutrient deficiencies result in immunosuppression and dysregulation of the immune response including impairment of phagocyte function and cytokine production, as well as adversely affecting aspects of humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Such alterations in immune function and the resulting inflammation are not only associated with infection, but also with the development of chronic diseases including cancer, autoimmune disease, osteoporosis, disorders of the endocrine system andcardiovascular disease.

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Original post:
8th European Immunology Conference June 29-July 01, 2017 ...

Some cells are visible to the unaided eye

The smallest objects that the unaided human eye can see are about 0.1 mm long. That means that under the right conditions, you might be able to see an ameoba proteus, a human egg, and a paramecium without using magnification. A magnifying glass can help you to see them more clearly, but they will still look tiny.

Smaller cells are easily visible under a light microscope. It's even possible to make out structures within the cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Light microscopes use a system of lenses to magnify an image. The power of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of visible light, which is about 500 nm. The most powerful light microscopes can resolve bacteria but not viruses.

To see anything smaller than 500 nm, you will need an electron microscope. Electron microscopes shoot a high-voltage beam of electrons onto or through an object, which deflects and absorbs some of the electrons. Resolution is still limited by the wavelength of the electron beam, but this wavelength is much smaller than that of visible light. The most powerful electron microscopes can resolve molecules and even individual atoms.

The label on the nucleotide is not quite accurate. Adenine refers to a portion of the molecule, the nitrogenous base. It would be more accurate to label the nucleotide deoxyadenosine monophosphate, as it includes the sugar deoxyribose and a phosphate group in addition to the nitrogenous base. However, the more familiar "adenine" label makes it easier for people to recognize it as one of the building blocks of DNA.

No, this isn't a mistake. First, there's less DNA in a sperm cell than there is in a non-reproductive cell such as a skin cell. Second, the DNA in a sperm cell is super-condensed and compacted into a highly dense form. Third, the head of a sperm cell is almost all nucleus. Most of the cytoplasm has been squeezed out in order to make the sperm an efficient torpedo-like swimming machine.

The X chromosome is shown here in a condensed state, as it would appear in a cell that's going through mitosis. It has also been duplicated, so there are actually two identical copies stuck together at their middles. A human sperm cell contains just one copy each of 23 chromosomes.

A chromosome is made up of genetic material (one long piece of DNA) wrapped around structural support proteins (histones). Histones organize the DNA and keep it from getting tangled, much like thread wrapped around a spool. But they also add a lot of bulk. In a sperm cell, a specialized set of tiny support proteins (protamines) pack the DNA down to about one-sixth the volume of a mitotic chromosome.

The size of the carbon atom is based on its van der Waals radius.

Read this article:
Cell Size and Scale - Learn Genetics

Stem Cells are characterised by their two properties of capability of renewing themselves and differentiating into a diverse range of cell types. The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are: embryonic stem cells and somatic or adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, while adult stem cells are found in adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, dividing essentially without limit to replenish specialized cells. Because of their pluripotency and unlimited capacity for self-renewal, embryonic stem cell therapies have been proposed for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease. Reprogramming of somatic cells with defined factors can be a resolution to the problem of allogeneic stem cell transplantation in embryonic stem cell therapies. Adult cells, which have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem celllike state by being forced to express genes and factors important for maintaining the defining properties of embryonic stem cells, are referred to as induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).

The rest is here:
Stem Cell - Sino Biological Inc

Abstract

Understanding the malleable determinants of cellular aging is critical to understanding human longevity. Telomeres may provide a pathway for exploring this question. Telomeres are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes. The length of telomeres offers insight into mitotic cell and possibly organismal longevity. Telomere length has now been linked to chronic stress exposure and depression. This raises the question of how might cellular aging be modulated by psychological functioning.

We consider two psychological processes or states that are in opposition to one another--threat cognition and mindfulness--and their effects on cellular aging. Psychological stress cognitions, particularly appraisals of threat and ruminative thoughts, can lead to prolonged states of reactivity. In contrast, mindfulness meditation techniques appear to shift cognitive appraisals from threat to challenge, decrease ruminative thought, and reduce stress arousal. Mindfulness may also directly increase positive arousal states.

We review data linking telomere length to cognitive stress and stress arousal and present new data linking cognitive appraisal to telomere length. Given the pattern of associations revealed so far, we propose that some forms of meditation may have salutary effects on telomere length by reducing cognitive stress and stress arousal and increasing positive states of mind and hormonal factors that may promote telomere maintenance. Aspects of this model are currently being tested in ongoing trials of mindfulness meditation.

Keywords: meditation, mindfulness, stress, appraisal, rumination, telomere length, telomerase

Chronological age is the ultimate predictor of disease and death. However, tremendous individual variability is found in onset of morbidity and mortality. Therefore, it is of great scientific and clinical interest to identify markers of biological age, as well as factors that influence them. Telomere length (TL) appears to be such an indicator. TL shortens with chronological age, predicts risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) independent of age, and is shortened in people with age-related diseases, including atherosclerosis and diabetes.1 Stress appears to influence the rate of telomere shortening.2 Here we examine links between TL, stress arousal, and stress cognitions, and consider how mindfulness meditation might alter these pathways, as well as have direct effects independent of stress pathways.

There are specific types of stress cognitions that lead to greater stress arousal and thus may impact cell longevity. Threat appraisals enhance negative emotional responses to a stressor by construing it as a threat to oneself and amplifying the significance of the stressor. In addition to the content of an appraisal, the process of rumination about negative appraisals prolongs the stress arousal, and can induce distress about the emotional response itself. These two types of stress cognition then trigger negative emotional responses tied to specific forms of physiological arousal (high catabolic, low anabolic profiles) which can impair telomere length.

Mindfulness is a psychological process that acts on specific parts of this cognitive content and process, disrupting the stress pathways and possibly having direct salutary effects on physiological arousal systems. Based on a combination of empirical data and speculation, we propose that these processes, stress cognition and mindfulness, may be linked to cellular aging, shown in . Below we offer a selective review on the literatures of cell aging (telomeres and telomerase), stress cognition (threat appraisals and rumination) and their effects on arousal relevant to telomere maintenance, and lastly, the potential impact of mindfulness and meditation on these stress processes.

Model of Mindfulness Meditation Effects on Telomere Length through Positive and Stressful Cognitive States

Telomeres provide a unique model for understanding cell aging and senescence. Telomeres are the protective nucleoprotein structures capping the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, consisting of a simple repeat sequence (TTAGGG). When cells divide, the end of the telomere cap may not be replicated because the DNA polymerase does not function properly at the end of a DNA strand.3 Therefore telomeres tend to shorten with mitosis so that cells in older organisms have on average shorter telomeres than cells in younger organisms.

Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein reverse transcriptase cellular enzyme that counteracts TL shortening and adds telomeric DNA to shortened telomeres. Telomerase thus forestalls shortened telomeres from signaling the cell to cease dividing or to die. Telomerase promotes cell longevity even in the face of critically shortened telomeres.4 Conversely, cells with short telomeres without telomerase are at highest risk of fusions, senescence, and apoptosis.5,6 Thus, it is in part the interaction between short telomeres and low telomerase activity that appears to increase the risk of cell death.7

Telomere shortening and replicative senescence is thought to be indicative of bodily aging. Several genetic premature aging syndromes are characterized by cell sencescence (Werner Syndrome, Progeria Hutchinson Guilford, and ataxia teleangiecstasia); at least when subjects cells are examined in vitro, and are characterized by signs of accelerated aging and early mortality.8 There is a proliferation of research in this area, and many studies show that TL is linked to a variety of disease states. Shorter TL is related to aspects of cardiovascular disease, such as plaques,9 heart attacks10 greater calcific aortic valve stenosis 11, vascular dementia 12 and degenerative conditions such as osteoarthritis13 and osteoporosis.14 It has also been related to diabetes15,16 and general risk factors for chronic disease, including obesity and insulin resistance.16,17 Lastly, TL in leukocytes predicted earlier mortality in a community sample, and in samples with Alzheimers disease and history of stroke.18-20

Given the role of telomere maintenance to cell longevity and apparently human longevity, it is important to find the nexus of how psychological function might affect this longevity system. We first examined whether young healthy women under chronic stress had shorter telomeres than those with low levels of life stress. We found that objective stress (years of caregiving) and perceptions of life stress were both related to shorter telomere length.21 We have found similar relationships with dementia caregivers and controls (unpublished data). Others have since found shortened telomeres in major depression,22 and in those with lower socioeconomic status.23 Thus, stressful life circumstances, stress appraisals, and severe distress, appear to be related to greater telomere shortening.

It is nevertheless difficult to predict who is most vulnerable to telomere shortening when exposed to similar conditions of chronic stress. Here we briefly review some of the important psychological (cognitive and emotional) aspects of stress, and then physiological stress mediators that are likely related to cell aging as well. We note, however, that psychological function is only one of many factors influencing telomere length in adulthood, and a lifespan approach may be the best way to understand telomere length at any one moment in time 24.

Given the huge individual variance in perception and reaction to common stressful events, the process of coping with challenge is an important mediator of emotional reactions25 and presumably physiological reactivity.

A prevailing model for understanding what makes a situation stressful is Lazarus and Folkmans (1984) Stress and Coping Theory.26 Situations where a goal that matters to the person is at stake and the demands of the situation outweigh the persons resources for coping with it can cause feelings of stress. We may feel stressed when a situation harms or threatens important goals (threat appraisals). In contrast, in a stressful situation, a person might see the possibility of doing well at coping and thus perceive the stressor as a challenge (challenge appraisals). Here, we focus on threat appraisals, which according to our model is the harmful type of stress, linked to cell aging.

Cognitive appraisal in turn affects choice of coping strategy. Coping refers to constantly changing (moment to moment) cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage the demands of a stressful situation.26 A key aspect of the appraisal process is the evaluation of personal control over the outcome. Situations in which there is the possibility of control usually call for behaviorally active, problem-focused coping strategies; situations in which nothing can be done usually call for cognitive strategies that help the person accept the situation or regulate their emotional responses to it.27,28 Accurate appraisals are important to enact effective coping (e. g., to prevent mismatches such as attempting to exert control over an uncontrollable situation).

In our original study on stress and cell aging among maternal caregivers, we examined perceptions of life stress, using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS),29 among healthy women (n = 65), some caring for a child with a chronic condition and others caring for healthy children. As reported elsewhere, the full scale score assessing stress-related feelings and thoughts over the last month was significantly related to shorter TL (r = 0.31), after covarying age and body mass index.2 Here we examine which aspects of stress perception on the PSS are linked to TL. Three of the 10 items were significantly related to TL, and these items represent the three core components of perceived stress: the two cognitive components, which include the perception that demands outweigh coping resources and a loss of control, represented by the question difficulties were piling up so high I could not overcome them, (r = 0.40, p < .002) and feeling unable to control important things in life (r = 0.28, p < .05); and the face-valid emotional component of stress represented by the question feeling nervous or stressed, (r = 0.40, p < .002). This item analysis suggests that specific stress cognitions may be related to TL, at least in this sample of women.

Appraisals also drive emotional states. Threat appraisals drive negative emotions (such as fear and anxiety), whereas challenge appraisals can foster both negative (e.g., anxiety) and positive emotions (e.g., feeling energized and elated).26,30 According to Stress and Coping Theory, 26 the coping process begins when an event is appraised as threatening or challenging. These appraisals prompt both emotional states and coping efforts. If the event is resolved favorably, a positive emotional state (e.g., relief, satisfaction) ensues. If the event is resolved unfavorably or if it remains unresolved, a negative emotional state results (e.g., anger, guilt, anxiety) and the coping process continues through reappraisal and continued rounds of coping.

Many people in modern societies are dealing with at least one, if not multiple, chronic life stressor, such as financial, relationship, work or caregiving stressors. What are the coping mechanisms people use to maintain positive affect and a positive outlook? In dealing with chronic stressors, the negative emotion associated with unfavorable resolution can in some cases motivate positive changes. Negative states motivate meaning-focused coping processes such as those that draw on important goals and values, 31-33 including goal-directed problem-focused coping, positive reappraisal, benefit finding and benefit reminding about a specific situation, 34 and infusion of ordinary events with meaning.35 These coping processes result in positive emotion, which serve important coping functions: they provide a psychological time-out from the distress associated with chronic stress and help motivate and sustain ongoing efforts to cope with the negative effects of the chronic stressor.36

There appears to be such a strong drive to experience positive emotions, such that people facing chronic adversity may be driven to reorganize their outlook on life. In the course of coping with chronic stress, people often develop cognitive shifts or changes in ones mental filter that promotes positive appraisals. These are distinct from acute stress appraisals and coping strategies. We call these cognitive shifts psychological thriving.37 Thriving includes a range of positive appraisals such as greater appreciation of life, or self growth (new skills and feeling empowered). These changes are not tied to specific situations, but rather serve as meta-cognitions about ones life. These shifts may stay with a person (i.e., become ingrained schemas) and affect future appraisals as well. We suspect that psychological thriving shifts situational appraisals of everyday minor stressors toward challenge appraisals, and decreases rumination. In this way, psychological thriving may promote a state of enhanced allostasis, a state where one has lower basal stress arousal, more efficient reactivity peaks, quicker recovery, and greater anabolic functioning after stress, as described in detail elsewhere.37,38

We do not know which individual or situation factors, in the course of chronic stress, cause some people to engage in positive coping, while others remain more fixed in their thinking. It is possible that mindfulness training can help foster positive coping and eventually psychological thriving.

Here, we report a preliminary test of one aspect of this model, the link between acute stress appraisals and telomere length. We asked whether acute appraisals to a standardized stressor are linked to telomere length. In the maternal caregiver study described above, we also examined response to an acute laboratory psychosocial stressor, an adapted form of the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST).39 Before the stressor, we measured thoughts and emotions linked to threat and challenge appraisals based on theory and research.27,40,41 Participants rated how much they felt each of 6 emotions, including worried, anxious, or fearful (threat emotions) and eager, confident, and hopeful (challenge emotions). They also rated expectations for the task, including anticipated success, difficulty of the task, perceptions of control over the task, and effort they would need to exert.

An exploratory factor analysis was performed requesting two factors, with a varimax rotation. All items loaded on one of two factors, with loadings of .59 or higher, accounting for 51% of the total variance, supporting the existence of threat and challenge appraisal factors. The threat factor (Eigenvalue of 2.8) included the threat emotions and scoring high on expected difficulty. The challenge factor (Eigenvalue of 2.4) included scoring high on challenge emotions, high anticipated success, high perceived control, and expecting to exert high effort. Factor scores were created and examined independently and as a ratio of challenge to threat, in case relative levels of appraisal mattered. There were no correlations between TL with challenge (.07) or threat (r = .00) factors, suggesting that neither type of appraisal alone is associated with telomere shortening. However, the ratio of challenge to threat was significantly correlated with longer telomeres (r = .26, p < .05), suggesting that appraising a standardized stressor as more challenging than threatening may be related to longer TL. Appraisals are complex, even with a short lab stressor. In response to the upcoming laboratory stressor, people made both challenge and threat appraisals. Given the correlation between appraisal ratio and TL, and that telomere length is a cumulative measure, one that changes slowly over years, it appears that the predominant appraisal, determined by the relative balance of appraisals, is likely related to habitual ways of responding to small daily stressors.

The neuroendocrine system and autonomic nervous system which regulate the stress response are important physiological mediators between emotional stress and illness. Chronic stress can depress levels of heart rate variability or vagal tone, an index of the counterregulatory response to sympathetic arousal. For example, low vagal tone has been related to work stress42, depression43 and low socioeconomic status.44

Chronic stress can lead to dysregulation of the hypothalamic pituitary axis, which can take many forms, such as a blunted diurnal rhythm of cortisol or elevated basal levels.45,46 Flattened rhythm in turn can predict various indicators of physical and mental health, such as coronary calcification47 and metastatic breast cancer progression.48 Chronic stress can suppress levels of certain anabolic hormones, such as DHEA or insulin like growth factor 49 and can increase levels of insulin and visceral fat 50. Anabolic hormones such as testosterone appear to suppress or counterregulate the catabolic and sympathetic stress response 51 thus playing an important role in endocrine balance. Lastly, acute and chronic stress appear to increase levels of oxidative stress.52 These relationships between stress and neuroendocrine balance have been reviewed extensively elsewhere.49,53-55

Strong positive and negative emotions associated with appraisals can induce changes in physiological arousal systems. A primary construct for understanding appraisal and arousal is perceived control. Perceptions of control help determine whether a situation is appraised as a threat or challenge, and these appraisals in turn are primary determinants of physiological stress responses. Classic stress research has shown that feeling a lack of control over a stressor, including a sense of unpredictability and uncertainty, stimulates cortisol reactivity.56 A meta-analysis across studies of psychological laboratory stressors showed that conditions of social evaluative threat (perceptions that ego relevant aspects of ones identity will be negatively judged) and low control, are potent stimulants of the adrenal gland, with additive effects for both.57

Little research has examined positive emotions and physiology, and no research to our knowledge has compared high vs. low arousal positive states. Positive emotional states may promote a more salutary pattern of arousal. High arousal positive states, such as sports competition, vicariously experiencing winning, or experiencing challenge appraisals while successfully coping with an acute stressor, may activate certain anabolic hormones such as testosterone and DHEA-S.58-60 Lower arousal emotions, such as feeling composed, calm and peaceful are associated with greater vagal tone (parasympathetic activity) 61 and possibly to higher DHEA.62 Low DHEA at baseline has also been related to greater subsequent threat appraisals and negative affect in response to a stressor, suggesting it promotes affective vulnerability to acute stress.63 Thus, there are likely bidirectional relationships between neuroendocrine balance of anabolic and catabolic hormones, and appraisals. We suggest that the anabolic (mainly androgens and vagal tone) response to positive states, both high arousal states (challenge) and low arousal states (relaxation) may be one key to the effects of mindfulness on physical health (See , Positive states).

When a coping outcome is appraised as unfavorable and the goal remains highly valued, people feel more negative affect and may engage in rumination, repetitive thought that is not goal directed. Depressive rumination, a negative self-focus on assumed basic faults, can prolong negative mood and over time predict depression.64 Negative affect and rumination may further lead to prolonged cardiovascular recovery.65-67 State rumination has been related to higher salivary cortisol after acute stress.68

As yet few studies attempt to link cell aging to stress arousal. In our initial study of healthy young women, those with shorter telomeres excreted higher levels of both cortisol and epinephrine in their urine overnight, 69 suggesting chronically elevated stress response system activity. When examining telomerase, we found that low telomerase was related to greater basal hemodynamic arousal (heart rate, blood pressure), lower heart rate variability, and greater sympathetic reactivity to lab stress.69 Low telomerase was related to lower resting vagal tone and a greater dip in vagal tone in response to an acute lab stressor independent of resting vagal tone.

Endocrine and biochemical milieu can affect rate of telomere shortening with each cell division. Oxidative stress, characterized by excess free radicals, shortens telomeres, whereas telomerase can rebuild and thus lengthen the telomere. Further, in vitro evidence in various cell lines suggests that certain anabolic hormones, including growth hormone, 70 IGF-1,71-73 and estrogen, 74,75 can promote telomerase activity. In contrast, insulin and insulin resistance are related to telomere shortness.17 These same pathways may be affected by chronic stress and meditation, discussed further below.

Here we review meditation techniques theorized to positively modulate stress-related cognitive processes and arousal with implications for cellular aging. We first outline the theoretical claims and practice of mindfulness meditation, in particular, based on a large body of theory and research in this area, and examine other forms of meditation when applicable. We then review research linking mindfulness states, mindfulness meditation, and other types of meditation to aspects of stress cognition, coping, and emotional reactivity. Lastly, we review research linking meditation to stress arousal.

At the outset, we note the Buddhist origins of mindfulness meditation techniques and acknowledge that scientific understandings of mindfulness have developed largely independent of Buddhist paradigms, theory, and goals (for a discussion on this issue, see 76,77). Mindfulness meditation has been adapted to Western secular contexts to treat patients with a variety of physical and psychological conditions and research to date has predominantly focused on its efficacy to improve these conditions and examine underlying mechanisms. In contrast, in Buddhist settings, mindfulness is one aspect of a set of integrated spiritual practices, beliefs, and teachings aimed at achieving insight into the nature and cause of suffering and realizing spiritual freedom.77 These differing goals and contexts have implications for the understanding of mindfulness and so we emphasize the importance of not mistaking secular, therapeutic conceptualizations of mindfulness, as we focus on here, for Buddhist conceptualizations. Notwithstanding these issues, we would argue that the adaptation of mindfulness to Western contexts retains at least some of its essential ingredients and appears to be beneficial. Thus, it is within this larger context that we aim to review the scientific literature on mindfulness. We specifically focus on the relation of mindfulness to stress related cognitions, affect, and coping processes using Stress and Coping theory as a framework to propose mechanisms through which mindfulness, and other forms of meditation, may positively impact stress arousal and cellular aging.

Mindfulness is considered an inherent aspect of consciousness that can be enhanced through a variety of mental training techniques collectively referred to as mindfulness meditation. Mindfulness, translated from the Pali word sati (Sanskrit: smrti), literally means to remember. In the traditional Buddhist context, it means to adhere to an object of consciousness with a clear mental focus in a given moment 78. This simple definition contrasts with the multidimensional conceptualization of mindfulness by contemporary Western scientists. Although scientists have yet to agree on a precise definition,76,79-81 the most commonly cited one belongs to pioneer Jon Kabat-Zinn, who defined it as paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment and non-judgmentally 82 (p.4). Kabat-Zinn adds an attitudinal dimension to the state of mindfulnesss, that of nonjudgmentalness. Other researchers following his lead have described the attitude as one of curiosity and acceptance80 or kindness, compassion, and patience. 83 Thus, in addition to characterizing mindfulness as a form of attention regulation as in the Buddhist definition, scientists emphasize the importance of the cognitive and emotional manner in which attention is deployed.

Instructions for the formal practice of mindfulness meditation entail purposefully directing attention to ones experience in the present moment with an attitude of open curiosity and acceptance.80 An upright sitting posture with minimal movement is encouraged (with eyes either open or closed) to allow the body to relax and the mind to remain alert. Attention is directed to a pre-determined object, usually localized sensations involving respiration, such as those at the tip of the nose (external objects can also be used, such as a picture). Novice practitioners usually report that after a short period of time, they become distracted by thoughts, feelings, sounds, or physical sensations and their focus on the intended object is lost. At this point, the instruction is to notice these experiences (distractions) fully without judgment, to let them go, and return attention back to its intended object. Instructions for attending to distractions vary - from silently applying a specific label to the object (e.g., anger, anticipation, sound) to applying the general term thinking to any thought, to not making any mental notation whatsoever. Labeling an experience is believed to strengthen recognition of it and this may be particularly helpful for some individuals or when experiencing intense distractions. The process of becoming distracted and returning the attention is repeated over and over again during formal mindfulness practice. The goal is to increase awareness of present-moment experience to increasingly subtle levels and to strengthen stability of attention. The goal is not to ignore or get rid of thought in order to have a blank mind, but to notice with full attention whatever arises. In this sense, there are no distractions; whatever is noticed in the field of awareness can be observed. Interestingly, it can be painful to observe thoughts one wishes to avoid, so in this sense, the practice cultivates a willingness to experience discomfort and reduces attempts to escape it. At the other extreme, the goal is not to indulge in pleasant thought or achieve a pleasant experience (although this may occur), but to remain aware of each experience as it occurs.

A fundamental shift in the relation to thought and other objects of awareness is considered a pivotal, key mechanism of mindfulness training. This metacognitive process has been referred to as decentering and reperceiving, processes which have been similarly defined.79,84 Here we use the term reperceiving, which is defined as a shift in perspective in that what was previously subject becomes object (p. 378); or, in other words, consciousness becomes awareness of thought rather than thought itself. This shift in perspective is hypothesized to lead to the realization that I am not that thought allowing for greater flexibility in how to respond to thought or any experience when it occurs. This insight is argued to have manifold salutary effects on psychological functioning further elaborated below.81 We feel this is a key process for defusing stress cognitions, as described in detail below (under appraisal and rumination sections).

Mindful states of consciousness are not confined to formal meditation practice, but are thought to carry over into daily activities. Additionally, as mindfulness is considered an innate capacity of human consciousness, individuals without formal training are thought to vary in the extent to which they are mindful. As such, self-report measures of dispositional mindfulness have been developed using non-meditators 85,86. Effects of mindfulness training have most commonly been studied a) in the context of an eight-week group intervention program, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) 87 or variations of this program tailored to meet the needs of specific populations, b) using brief inductions of mindfulness in laboratory settings, or c) comparing experienced meditators to controls, findings of which are highlighted below.

As noted, a central aspect of mindfulness training involves the self-regulation of attention. In support, recent studies find improved performance on attention-related behavioral tasks after mindfulness training. Jha and colleagues found improved ability to orient attention in response to an environmental cue, enhancing response accuracy and reaction time on a computerized task among MBSR participants compared to meditation-nave participants.88 The researchers also found individuals who completed a one-month mindfulness-based residential retreat increased accuracy of a target location when no prior cue was presented compared to controls, indicating an enhanced vigilant state of alertness. These findings suggest that mindfulness enhances attention-related responsiveness to environmental cues and ability to maintain alertness.

In line with these findings, two studies have shown that meditation training is associated with inhibition of habitual responding on the classic Stroop task, in which participants are asked to name the colored text of a word rather than the word itself (e.g., the correct response to the word red appearing in blue-colored font is blue). 89,90 Although a contrived laboratory task, the findings support the suggestion that automatic, top-down information processing is reduced following certain forms of meditation practice. One implication of the deautomatization of thought is that it should lead to enhanced ability to notice nuanced details of experience from a fresh perspective and inhibit reliance on memories, expectations, and schemas during information processing.91

Meditation training has further been shown to reduce elaborative processing of previous stimuli thereby increasing attentional resources to present-moment experience.92 The distribution of attentional resources as measured by performance on an attentional-blink task improved after a 3-month intensive mindfulness-based meditation retreat compared to controls.92 Scalp-recorded brain potentials showed reduced brain-resource allocation to the first target embedded in a rapid stream of stimuli enabling increased identification of the second target.

Enhanced attention-related processes are hypothesized to improve early detection of potential stressors and increase the probability that effective coping will be implemented in a timely manner (Teasdale et al, 1995). Increased awareness of present-moment experience may also disrupt ruminative thought processes that play a role in prolonged stress reactivity and vulnerability to mental illness (Teasdale et al, 1995).

In addition, training in present-moment awareness appears to increase interoceptive processes, which involve awareness of visceral signals and subtle emotional feelings thought to be important in emotion regulation.93 Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, increased neural activity of brain regions involved in processing present-moment experience was found following eight weeks of mindfulness training compared to controls.94 Specifically, viscerosomatic brain areas showed greater activation (including the insula, secondary somatosensory cortex and infereior parietal lobule) when meditators compared to novices were asked to maintain an experiential momentary experience vs. a narrative self-focus after presentation of personality traits.94 In a study of long-term mindfulness meditation practitioners, magnetic resonance imaging revealed greater cortical thickness in brain regions associated with interoception, including the right anterior insula, compared to controls.95 These studies provide neural evidence that mindfulness meditation cultivates interoceptive awareness, which is thought to play a key role in maintaining present moment awareness and regulating emotions.

In regards to cognitive appraisals, to the extent mindfulness reduces identification with self-related cognition and goals through enhanced attention to present-moment experience and reperceiving, situations may be appraised as less threatening. Heppner and Kernis 96 argue that individuals who report greater dispositional mindfulness are less likely to interpret ambiguous behavior by others as reflecting hostile intent, and report less anger and desire to retaliate. In a mindfulness meditation induction experiment (as described in Heppner et al, 2007, citing unpublished analyses), participants exposed to a brief mindfulness practice (mindful eating of a raisin) displayed less aggressive behavior following social rejection compared to control participants. They suggest these participants may have experienced reduced reactivity to social threat because they attributed less hostile intent to the actor. In a study of relationship stress among romantic couples, those with higher dispositional mindfulness reported relatively more positive perceptions of their partner and relationship after discussing a conflict in a laboratory setting.97 A randomized waitlist-controlled trial of an abbreviated MBSR program conducted among adults at their work-site, found reductions in global appraisals of life stress (using the Perceived Stress Scale) compared to control group participants.98

These studies support the notion that mindfulness facilitates interpretation of situations as less threatening, perhaps due to less activation of self-relevant concerns, so that events are responded to more thoughtfully, rather than reacted to through automatic filters of cognitive and emotional processes. Mindfulness is argued to promote cognitive balance, the ability to see clearly beyond assumptions, preventing common and habitual cognitive distortions.99

Mindfulness may also improve coping with events that are appraised as threatening in which there is little possibility of control. Mindfulness may serve to increase a sense of control, not simply by reacting more coolly, (with attenuated cycles of negative thoughts and emotions), but by lessening ones perceived need to be in control, especially when situations are determined to be uncontrollable. In one controlled mindfulness-based meditation intervention of 28 healthy participants, those in the treatment group reported both increases in sense of control over life and increased willingness to let go of control efforts (greater use of acceptance/yielding to cope with stressors).100

Mindfulness training also improves the ability of patients to cope with a variety of chronic disease-related stressors that often afford limited opportunities for control. A meta-analysis of 20 studies examining effects of MBSR in patients with chronic illnesses (including cancer, fibromyalgia, and chronic pain) as well as those seeking to reduce stress, found a moderate effect size (Cohens d = ~.50) across observational, waitlist-controlled, and active-controlled studies.101 Improvements in psychological functioning (e.g., anxiety and depressive symptoms, copying style) were observed in addition to improvements in physical health symptoms, including pain and physical impairment and function. Large, well-controlled studies that assess the active ingredients of mindfulness are still needed, yet the accumulated studies offer encouragement that MBSR is helpful in enhancing patients ability to cope with a wide range of chronic illnesses.

Several other forms of meditation have been shown to reduce threat appraisals and enhance adaptive coping. A randomized controlled trial of mantra meditation (repeating a spiritually-related word or phrase throughout the day, including a focus on noticing and interrupting stressful thoughts) showed an increase in positive reappraisal, the tendency to reframe situations in a more positive light.102 Robins, McCain et al. 2006 conducted an uncontrolled study of Tai Chi, a form of moving meditation focusing on breath, in a sample of 59 participants with HIV. Although they found no changes in other types of coping, there was a significant increase in positive reappraisal.103

Lastly, a randomized study of Cognitive Behavioral Stress Management (CBSM) which incorporates a variety of somatic and cognitive techniques including meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, cognitive restructuring, assertiveness training, and anger management, examined responses to a standardized laboratory stressor (TSST, described above). They found that those in CBSM made fewer stress appraisals, both threat and challenge, and experienced greater expected control. These appraisals mediated lower cortisol responses to the stressor.104 A similar study followed 28 students, randomized to CBSM or a waitlist control group, and measured stress appraisals before a naturalistic stressor (an exam). Compared to the control group, those who received CBSM were less likely to appraise the exam as threatening (although equally likely to appraise it as challenging, thus changing the appraisal ratio), and had marginally greater perceived competence.105 These studies show that forms of meditation practice and stress reduction other than mindfulness also reduce stress-related cognitions, partly by shifting appraisals of events from threatening to positive and/or challenging.

One key way in which mindfulness may protect one from the negative effects of stress is by decreasing rumination. Increasing awareness of present-moment experience may disrupt ruminative thought processes that play a role in prolonged stress reactivity. 106 The typical instructions for mindfulness meditation, to notice thoughts and let them go, target the discursive mind the tendency to revisit the same thoughts repeatedly. As thoughts and feelings are experienced as transient mental events occurring within a wider context of awareness, attenuation of automatic identification and reactivity to them may occur. Over time, this more objective perspective on mental content, referred to as meta-cognitive awareness, may interrupt ruminative thinking, increase the ability to evaluate the accuracy of thoughts, and allow greater freedom of choice in responding to thoughts and emotions.84

The practice of changing how one relates to thoughts and emotions contrasts with cognitive behavioral therapies that emphasize changing the content of thoughts. Mindfulness practice involves first allowing awareness of thought and then becoming less engaged or attached to the thoughts themselves before attempting to evaluate their accuracy.99 This type of non-reactivity to inner experiences such as negative thoughts is one factor of a multi-factorial self-report measure of mindfulness.86

There are several studies that examine mindfulness and rumination. Mindfulness, as an individual difference variable, is related to less rumination.107,108 Conversely, mindfulness is negatively related to the more trait-like automatic habit of negative thinking,108 suggesting that it may prevent tonic dysphoria and low self esteem, in addition to playing a role in coping with stressors. A recent randomized trial suggests that mindfulness training reduces ruminative thought and distraction to a larger extent than somatic relaxation. This reduction in rumination is thought to be key to reducing distress.109

Mindfulness may also influence the secondary response to negative emotions that perpetuates the cycle of negative thoughts (distress about distress). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), based on the MBSR program, specifically targets rumination and negative thought patterns associated with depression. A primary goal of the MBCT intervention developed for people with a history of depression is to shift the way participants relate to depressive thoughts and emotions, a process referred to as decentering, in that thoughts are experienced more objectively as passing events in the mind rather than accurate reflections of reality. The program has been found to be effective for reducing depression relapse in currently non-depressed patients in randomized usual-care controlled trials.84,110 Using semi-structured interview techniques to elicit memories of mildly depressive situations, the researchers found that mindfulness training increased the ability of participants to view their depressive thoughts and emotions with greater discrimination, evaluate the appropriateness of their thoughts and feelings, and gain greater perspective that their thoughts were self-generated rather than accurate reflections of reality.

Mindfulness is theorized to enhance emotion regulation skills by increasing awareness of emotions, increasing the willingness to tolerate and accept distressing or uncomfortable emotions, and reducing emotional reactivity to provocative events and emotions themselves.111

The proposal that mindfulness improves affect regulation through enhanced awareness of emotional processes is supported by three studies on reactivity to emotional stimuli. In one study, participants were asked to label emotions expressed on human faces while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Individuals scoring higher on a measure of trait mindfulness showed enhanced prefrontal cortical regulation of affect and reduced bilateral amygdala activity (typically associated with negative affective states) during affect labeling compared to a control labeling task.112 Furthermore, those with high vs. low trait mindfulness showed strong negative associations between areas of prefrontal cortex and right amygdala activity. These findings point to neural substrates that may underlie aspects of the reperceiving process in which consciousness is shifted from identification with emotion to conscious awareness of emotion. The effect of this cognitive shift may be to disrupt or inhibit automatic affective responses, reducing their intensity and duration.112,113

Brief mindfulness-based meditation training has been shown to reduce reactivity to emotional stimuli and increase willingness to be exposed to or tolerate negative stimuli. Participants who participated in a 15-minute focused breathing exercise akin to exercises taught in MBSR, reported less negative affect in response to images known to elicit negative emotions compared to two control groups instructed to either let their minds wander for 15 minutes or worry about certain aspects of their lives.111 The mindfulness participants also continued to report moderate levels of positive affect throughout exposure to emotionally neutral images and were more willing to view additional negative images compared to the control groups.

In a randomized waitlist-controlled MBSR trial among employees, Davidson and colleagues (2003) found an increased pattern of left-sided anterior brain activation, known to be associated with state and trait positive affect, in response to positive and negative mood inductions in MBSR participants compared to waitlist group from pre to post intervention. Left-sided anterior activation has been associated with quicker emotional recovery following a negative event.114 These studies indirectly support the idea that mindfulness promotes adaptive regulation of emotion.

In addition, mindfulness is linked to greater emotional well-being across studies with differing methodologies, including correlations of self-report levels of mindfulness with self-report emotional well-being, mindfulness induction experiments conducted in laboratories, and clinical trial interventions, as reviewed by Brown et al (2007). Trait levels of mindfulness have been associated with fewer emotional disturbances (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms), greater affective balance high positive affect and low negative affect, and less difficulties with emotional regulation.85,86 In a 2-week experience-sampling study, reports of greater state mindfulness were associated with affective balance (higher positive affect and lower negative affect), independent of trait mindfulness.85

Mindfulness is also although thought to increase intensity and frequency of positive and pro-social emotions, including empathy, kindness and compassion for self and others (Wallace and Shapiro, 2006). A randomized study of mindfulness-based stress reduction demonstrated increased scores on a measure of empathy, the capacity to notice and feel what another is feeling.115

In summary, the early research reviewed above suggests that mindfulness appears to reduce stress cognitions both the negative content of threat appraisals, the ruminative process of revisiting negative thoughts, as well as the secondary response of feeling distress about feeling distress.

In addition to mitigating stress-related cognitions and emotions, some types of meditation appear to reduce markers of stress arousal, both through the HPA axis, increasing vagal tone, and reducing markers of sympathetic arousal. Transcendental meditation (TM), a concentrative technique that uses silent repetition of a word or phrase as the object of awareness, has been the most extensively studied meditative technique. It appears to reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure to levels comparable to pharmacologic treatment116 and improves heart rate variability compared to an active control group.117 It also appears to lower basal cortisol and lead to greater cortisol peaks in response to an acute stressor,118-120 a profile that might be described as enhanced allostasis.38,121 TM and a similar type of concentrative meditation (the relaxation response technique) are also characterized by decreased oxygen consumption,122,123 carbon dioxide elimination,124,125 and salutary EEG patterns (theta and alpha activation).126

Little research has evaluated specifically the effects of mindfulness meditation on HPA axis arousal or autonomic activity127 although similar effects as those found with transcendental meditation and the relaxation response could be predicted to occur. In one uncontrolled MBSR intervention study, cancer patients consistently showed decreased daily average cortisol values after one year of follow-up .128 In a second study, lower cortisol responses to mental stress were observed after five days of practicing an integrated mind-body meditation approach incorporating mindfulness compared to a randomized relaxation control group.129 However, one caveat is that mindfulness includes acknowledgement of distressing thoughts and feelings, which may initially increase arousal and emotional activity, but viewed as a developmental process, may progressively lead to decreased reactivity through enhanced awareness, tolerance of discomfort, and acceptance. Thus, for beginners, and periodically for experienced practitioners, mindfulness meditation is expected to produce increases in physiologic arousal.130

Several randomized controlled trials have demonstrated the effectiveness of CBSM on reducing peripheral stress arousal. CBSM training reduced urinary free cortisol and epinephrine in clinical samples.131,132 In one study of healthy participants, CBSM led to lower cortisol reactivity in response to a standardized laboratory stressor within 2 weeks104 and, to a lesser extent, four months after the intervention.133 To the extent that mindfulness or other forms of meditation promote the ability to buffer oneself from social evaluative threat -- recognizing that negative social judgments or reflected appraisals of the self (what one thinks others think about oneself) do not necessarily represent reality or a threat to ones self-worth, practitioners should indeed become less stress reactive.

Although concentrative and mindfulness meditation techniques may reduce HPA axis and autonomic arousal, the brain appears to respond to specific types of meditation in ways that may represent an adaptive attentional state to appraise stimuli. An fMRI study of meditation practitioners (who practiced Kundalini meditation in which focused attention on respiration is linked to silent repetition of a phrase found increased activation of localized neural structures involved in attention (frontal and parietal cortex) and control of the autonomic nervous system (pregenual anterior cingulate, amygdala, midbrain, and hypothalamus) compared to a control nonmeditative condition.134 These data suggest that as some meditation practices produce deep physical relaxation evidenced by reductions in autonomic and HPA arousal, these practitioners were engaged in an active attentional state of autonomic control, countering the notion that meditation is a state of mental as well as physical relaxation.

Further evidence suggests that meditation effects are not simply the result of volitionally reduced peripheral arousal. Results of a study comparing neural correlates of mindfulness meditation and respiratory biofeedback found that while some regions are engaged by both tasks, mindfulness meditation activates additional neural regions (e.g., right anterior insula).135 Thus, while some forms of meditation engage attentional resources to induce a hypometablic state benefical for managing stress-related arousal, they also appear to modulate cognitive and emotional processes involved in the appraisal of stress, such as interoception.

Several meditation studies have measured markers of positive health, such as anabolic hormones, and these may have relevance for cellular aging. As discussed above and reviewed elsewhere, several stress reduction interventions have induced increased heart rate variability and increased anabolic hormones such as DHEA.136 Several uncontrolled studies of TM show healthier profiles of arousal, including greater levels of DHEA-S.120,137

Across controlled studies, mindfulness meditation appears to improve physical health symptoms and functioning across a variety of disorders, and increases measures of mental health, including reduced negative affect and increased quality of life.138,139 It is thought that these positive effects are mediated in part by reductions in psychological and physiological stress. TM has been linked to reduced cardiovascular disease risk factors and in controlled trials, has reduced blood pressure116 and carotid artery atherosclerosis 140 as reviewed by Walton and colleagues.1412893

Oxidative stress may be an important mediator between stress and disease. It is linked to cardiovascular disease, as well as telomere shortening. Although few studies have examined oxidative stress balance, two initial studies found that meditation practitioners (TM and Zen) had lower levels of a marker of oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation).142,143

Stress cognitions are important for survival, but if they are based on distorted perceptions, they may promote excessive stress arousal, creating a harmful milieu for cellular longevity. During the longevity conference that these proceedings are based upon, H.H. the Dalai Lama explained that emotions based on reason and analysis, tend to drive meaningful behavior. In contrast, emotions based on false projections or fear-based beliefs are harmful to longevity. Here, as shown in , we speculate that certain types of meditation can increase awareness of present moment experience leading to positive cognitions, primarily by increasing meta-cognitive awareness of thought, a sense of control (and decreased need to control), and increased acceptance of emotional experience. These cognitive states and skills reduce cognitive stress and thus ability for more accurate appraisals, reducing exaggerated threat appraisals and rumination, and distress about distress. These positive states are thus stress-buffering. Increasing positive states and decreasing stress cognitions may in turn slow the rate of cellular aging.

There is some indirect support of aspects of this hypothesis involving stress cognitions. In our previous study, perceived life stress -- primarily an inability to cope with demands and feeling a lack of control, and higher nocturnal stress hormones (cortisol and catecholamines) were related to shorter telomere length.2 Trait negative mood was related to lower telomerase activity, a precursor of telomere shortening.144 Here we presented preliminary data from the same sample linking telomere length to higher proportions of challenge appraisals relative to threat appraisals in response to a standardized stressor. The results suggest that the relative balance of threat to challenge cognitions may be important in buffering against the long term wear and tear effects of stressors. To the extent that meditation mitigates stress-related cognitions and propagation of negative emotions and negative stress arousal, a longstanding practice of mindfulness or other forms of meditation may indeed decelerate cellular aging.

We also speculate about the physiological mechanisms. Above we have reviewed data linking stress arousal and oxidative stress to telomere shortness. Meditative practices appear to improve the endocrine balance toward positive arousal (high DHEA, lower cortisol) and decrease oxidative stress. Thus, meditation practices may promote mitotic cell longevity both through decreasing stress hormones and oxidative stress and increasing hormones that may protect the telomere. There is much evidence of neuroendocrine and physical health benefits from TM, which has a longer history of study than MBSR. The newer studies of mindfulness meditation are promising, and offer insight into specific cognitive processes of how it may serve as an antidote to cognitive stress states.

This field of stress induced cell aging is young, our model is highly speculative, and there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of the potential effects of meditation on cell aging. Several laboratories are working on diverse aspects of this model, which will soon allow it to be evaluated in light of the empirical data.

24. Epel ES. Telomeres: A new psychobiomarker for a lifespan approach? Current Directions in Psychology. 2008 in press.

26. Lazarus R, Folkman S. Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer-Verlag; New York: 1984.

31. Folkman S, Moskowitz J. The scope of social psychology: Theory and applications. Psychology Press; Hove, UK: 2007. Positive affect and meaning-focused coping during significant psychological stress; pp. 193208.

33. Park CL, Folkman S. Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology. 1997;2:115144.

34. Tennen H, Affleck G. Benefit-finding and benefit-reminding. In: Snyder CR, Lopez SJ, editors. Handbook of positive psycholog. 584-597. Oxford University Press; London: 2002.

35. Folkman S, Moskowitz J, Ozer E, Park C. Positive meaningful events and coping in the context of HIV/AIDS. In: Gottlieb B, editor. Coping with Chronic Stress. Plenum; New York: 1997. pp. 293314.

36. Lazarus RS, Kanner AD, Folkman S. Emotions: A cognitive-phenomenological analysis. In: Plutchik R, Kellerman H, editors. Theories of emotion. Academic Press; New York: 1980.

37. Bower J, Low C, Moskowitz J, Sepah S, Epel E. Pathways from benefit finding to physical health: Enhanced psychological and physiological responses to stress. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 2008 in press.

38. Epel E, McEwen B, Ickovics J. Embodying psychological thriving: Physical thriving in response to stress. Journal of Social Issues. 1998;54:301322.

49. Epel E, Burke H, Wolkowitz O. Psychoneuroendocrinology of Aging: Focus on anabolic and catabolic hormones. In: Aldwin C, Spiro A, Park C, editors. Handbook of Health Psychology of Aging. Guildford Press; 2007. pp. 119141.

53. Sterling P, Eyer J. Allostasis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In: Fisher S, Reason J, editors. Handbook of Life Stress: Cognition and Health. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; 1988. pp. 629649.

60. Mendes WB, Ayduk O, Epel ES, Akinola M, Gyurak A. When stress is good for you: Neuroendocrine concomitants of physiological thriving. Harvard University; Boston: 2008.

62. Whitmore R, Maninger N, Wolfson W, Mendes WB, Epel ES. Relaxation increases DHEA; Paper presented at: Society of Behavioral Medicine; San Diego. 2008.

77. Rosch E. More than mindfulness: When you have a tiger by the tail, let it eat you. Taylor & Francis; United Kingdom: 2007.

78. Rosch E. More Than Mindfulness: When You Have a Tiger by the Tail, Let It Eat You. Psychological Inquiry. 2007 in press.

80. Bishop SR, Lau M, Shapiro S, et al. Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 2004 Fal11(3):230241.

81. Brown K, Ryan R, Creswell JD. Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry. 2007;18(4):211237.

82. Kabat-Zinn J. Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hyperion; New York: 1994.

87. Kabat-Zinn J. Full Catastrophe Living. Dell Publishing; New York: 1990.

91. Siegel D. The Mindful Brain. W.W. Norton and Company; New York: 2007.

96. Heppner WL, Kernis MH. Quiet ego functioning: The complementary roles of mindfulness, authenticity, and secure high self-esteem. Taylor & Francis; United Kingdom: 2007.

135. Lazar SW. Neural correlates of respiratory control during mindfulness meditation: Behavioral influences on respiration; Paper presented at: American Psychosomatic Society; Baltimore. 2008.

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1. Where did you have your stem cell treatment done? 2. Why didnt you have the treatment done in the United States? 3. Werent you worried about having a treatment done that is not FDA approved? 4. Where is Costa Rica? 5. Is Costa Rica safe to travel to? 6. Isn't Costa Rica a third world country? 7. What are stem cells? 8. What is the difference between embryonic and adult stem cells? 9. Did the stem cell treatment work? 10. What was the hospital like? 11. Did the treatment hurt? 12. Would you do it again? 1.Q Where did you have your stem cell treatment done? A After months of research and questioning and fact-finding, I decided to go to the Stem Cell Institute (cellmedicine.com). My first 2 treatments were done in San Jose, Costa Rica. The company continued to grow and expand to Panama to develop Medistem Panama. In 2009, the company was undergoing full development of a new $3M state of the art adult stem cell laboratory. In 2009, the Stem Cell Institute consolidated and moved all lab, research, and medical procedures to Panama. Go to Top 2.Q Why didnt you have the treatment done in the United States? A The stem cell treatment I had done for Multiple Sclerosis is not an approve treatment by the FDA. Go to Top 3.Q Werent you worried about having a treatment done that is not FDA approved? A No. In my humble opinion, I do not think that the United States is the only country that has the technology and resources available to develop and perform beneficial, advanced medical treatments. It is ignorant to believe that the FDA always knows best. Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. United States scientists and doctors are not the only professionals looking for solutions to solve health issues. It is a worldwide endeavor. Go to Top 4.Q Where is Costa Rica? A Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus with Nicaragua to the North and Panama to the South. It is not an island. It is bordered on the north by Nicaragua, the southeast by Panama. It is bordered on the East by the Caribbean Sea and on the West by the Pacific Ocean and is situated very near the equator. Go to Top 5.Q Is Costa Rica safe to travel to? A Without a doubt Costa Rica can be called the safest country in Central America. First and foremost, Costa Ricans (whether foreigners or Ticos) are honest and friendly people. They have a saying, "Pura Vida" ("Pure Life"). Wealth is very evenly distributed in relation to North America or European countries. Simple living without great material excess is the rule, and education, health, and welfare are freely available. Dismal poverty is rare, and therefore crime is reduced considerably. It has one of the lowest violent crime rates anywhere in the world. It's a democracy, has potable drinking water and an excellent, if basic, cuisine. There is no army, though the well-trained police force is highly qualified to keep the country secure. Go to Top 6.Q Isn't Costa Rica a third world country? A No. The United Nations uses the phrases developing countries and least developed countries rather than Third World. While it does have an official list of least developed countries it does not have an official list of developing countries because its members have not agreed on the criteria. Here is the link to the United Nations: http://www.worldbank.org The US is considered a first world country because it is on the list of High Income Economies. The next level down is Upper Middle Income Economies and that is what most people refer to as second world countries. Costa Rica and Mexico are on this list. Costa Rica is NOT a third world country. Go to Top 7.Q What are stem cells? A Stem cells are the forerunners of the specialized cells that generate all of the tissues in a human body. Stem cells are capable of renewing themselves almost indefinitely, ensuring a steady supply of replacement cells for those lost to disease, injury and age. Go to Top 8.Q What is the difference between embryonic and adult stem cells? A Adult stem cells are found throughout the body and come from mature tissue including bone marrow, blood, the brain, hair follicles, fat, the pancreas, inside the nose and umbilical cords. They multiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. Adult stem cells are multipotent because they can develop into several different types of cells, but not as many as embryonic stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are derived from fertilized eggs from in vitro fertilization done in a clinic. They are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman's body. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, which means they can differentiate into nearly all cells. Embryonic stem cells also have an unlimited ability to self-renew.

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Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being defined by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.[1] Happy mental states may also reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being.[2] A variety of biological, psychological, economic, religious and philosophical approaches have striven to define happiness and identify its sources. Various research groups, including positive psychology and happiness economics are employing the scientific method to research questions about what "happiness" is, and how it might be attained.

The United Nations declared 20 March the International Day of Happiness to recognise the relevance of happiness and well-being as universal goals.

Philosophers and religious thinkers often define happiness in terms of living a good life, or flourishing, rather than simply as an emotion. Happiness in this sense was used to translate the Greek Eudaimonia, and is still used in virtue ethics. There has been a transition over time from emphasis on the happiness of virtue to the virtue of happiness.[3] Since the turn of the millennium, the human flourishing approach, advanced particularly by Amartya Sen has attracted increasing interest in psychological, especially prominent in the work of Martin Seligman, Ed Diener and Ruut Veenhoven, and international development and medical research in the work of Paul Anand.[citation needed]

A widely discussed political value expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson, is the universal right to "the pursuit of happiness."[4] This suggests a subjective interpretation but one that nonetheless goes beyond emotions alone.[citation needed]

Happiness is a fuzzy concept and can mean many different things to many people. Part of the challenge of a science of happiness is to identify different concepts of happiness, and where applicable, split them into their components. Related concepts are well-being, quality of life and flourishing. At least one author defines happiness as contentment.[5] Some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way.[6]

The 2012 World Happiness Report stated that in subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reports.[7] Happiness is used in both life evaluation, as in How happy are you with your life as a whole?, and in emotional reports, as in How happy are you now?, and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these verbal contexts. Using these measures, the World Happiness Report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness.[citation needed]

Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics. During the past two decades, however, the field of happiness studies has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and has produced many different views on causes of happiness, and on factors that correlate with happiness,[8] but no validated method has been found to substantially improve long-term happiness in a meaningful way for most people.

Sonja Lyubomirsky concludes in her book The How of Happiness that 50 percent of a given human's happiness level is genetically determined (based on twin studies), 10 percent is affected by life circumstances and situation, and a remaining 40 percent of happiness is subject to self-control.[citation needed]

The results of the 75-year Grant Study of Harvard undergraduates show a high correlation of loving relationship, especially with parents, with later life wellbeing.[9]

In the 2nd Edition of the Handbook of Emotions (2000), evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John Tooby say that happiness comes from "encountering unexpected positive events". In the 3rd Edition of the Handbook of Emotions (2008), Michael Lewis says "happiness can be elicited by seeing a significant other". According to Mark Leary, as reported in a November 1995 issue of Psychology Today, "we are happiest when basking in the acceptance and praise of others". Sara Algoe and Jonathan Haidt say that "happiness" may be the label for a family of related emotional states, such as joy, amusement, satisfaction, gratification, euphoria, and triumph.[10]

It has been argued that money cannot effectively "buy" much happiness unless it is used in certain ways.[11] "Beyond the point at which people have enough to comfortably feed, clothe, and house themselves, having more money - even a lot more money - makes them only a little bit happier."[according to whom?] A Harvard Business School study found that "spending money on others actually makes us happier than spending it on ourselves".[12]

Meditation has been found to lead to high activity in the brain's left prefrontal cortex, which in turn has been found to correlate with happiness.[13]

Psychologist Martin Seligman asserts that happiness is not solely derived from external, momentary pleasures,[14] and provides the acronym PERMA to summarize Positive Psychology's correlational findings: humans seem happiest when they have

There have also been some studies of how religion relates to happiness. Causal relationships remain unclear, but more religion is seen in happier people. This correlation may be the result of community membership and not necessarily belief in religion itself. Another component may have to do with ritual.[15]

Abraham Harold Maslow, an American professor of psychology, founded humanistic psychology in the 1930s. A visual aid he created to explain his theory, which he called the hierarchy of needs, is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihly Cskszentmihlyi.[citation needed]

Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Cross-sectional studies worldwide support a relationship between happiness and fruit and vegetable intake. Those eating fruits and vegetables each day have a higher likelihood of being classified as very happy, suggesting a strong and positive correlation between fruit and vegetable consumption and happiness.[16] Whether it be in South Korea,[17] Iran,[18] Chile,[19] USA,[20] or UK,[21] greater fruit and vegetable consumption had a positive association with greater happiness, independent of factors such as smoking, exercise, body mass index, or socio-economic factors.

Religion and happiness have been studied by a number of researchers, and religion features many elements addressing the components of happiness, as identified by positive psychology. Its association with happiness is facilitated in part by the social connections of organized religion,[22] and by the neuropsychological benefits of prayer[23] and belief.

There are a number of mechanisms through which religion may make a person happier, including social contact and support that result from religious pursuits, the mental activity that comes with optimism and volunteering, learned coping strategies that enhance one's ability to deal with stress, and psychological factors such as "reason for being." It may also be that religious people engage in behaviors related to good health, such as less substance abuse, since the use of psychotropic substances is sometimes considered abuse.[24][25][26][27][28][29]

The Handbook of Religion and Health describes a survey by Feigelman (1992) that examined happiness in Americans who have given up religion, in which it was found that there was little relationship between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness.[30] A survey by Kosmin & Lachman (1993), also cited in this handbook, indicates that people with no religious affiliation appear to be at greater risk for depressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion.[31] A review of studies by 147 independent investigators found, "the correlation between religiousness and depressive symptoms was -.096, indicating that greater religiousness is mildly associated with fewer symptoms."[32]

The Legatum Prosperity Index reflects the repeated finding of research on the science of happiness that there is a positive link between religious engagement and wellbeing: people who report that God is very important in their lives are on average more satisfied with their lives, after accounting for their income, age and other individual characteristics.[33]

Surveys by Gallup, the National Opinion Research Centre and the Pew Organisation conclude that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed people.[34] An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that "high religiousness predicts a lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with sex life and a sense of well-being. However, the links between religion and happiness are always very broad in nature, highly reliant on scripture and small sample number. To that extent there is a much larger connection between religion and suffering (Lincoln 1034)."[32] And a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem and lower levels of hypertension, depression, and clinical delinquency.[35] A meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better self-actualization.[36] Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behaviour, drug/alcohol use/abuse."[37]

However, there remains strong disagreement among scholars about whether the effects of religious observance, particularly attending church or otherwise belonging to religious groups, is due to the spiritual or the social aspectsi.e. those who attend church or belong to similar religious organizations may well be receiving only the effects of the social connections involved. While these benefits are real enough, they may thus be the same one would gain by joining other, secular groups, clubs, or similar organizations.[38]

Terror management theory maintains that people suffer cognitive dissonance (anxiety) when they are reminded of their inevitable death. Through terror management, individuals are motivated to seek consonant elements symbols which make sense of mortality and death in satisfactory ways (i.e. boosting self-esteem).

Research has found that strong belief in religious or secular meaning systems affords psychological security and hope. It is moderates (e.g. agnostics, slightly religious individuals) who likely suffer the most anxiety from their meaning systems. Religious meaning systems are especially adapted to manage death anxiety because they are unlikely to be disconfirmed (for various reasons), they are all encompassing, and they promise literal immortality.[39][40]

Whether emotional effects are beneficial or adverse seems to vary with the nature of the belief. Belief in a benevolent God is associated with lower incidence of general anxiety, social anxiety, paranoia, obsession, and compulsion whereas belief in a punitive God is associated with greater symptoms. (An alternative explanation is that people seek out beliefs that fit their psychological and emotional states.)[41]

Citizens of the world's poorest countries are the most likely to be religious, and researchers suggest this is because of religion's powerful coping abilities.[42][43] Luke Galen also supports terror management theory as a partial explanation of the above findings. Galen describes evidence (including his own research) that the benefits of religion are due to strong convictions and membership in a social group.[44][45][46]

Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings.[47] For ultimate freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). Buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.[48][49][unreliable source?]

Happiness or simcha (Hebrew: ) in Judaism is considered an important element in the service of God.[50] The biblical verse "worship The Lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs," (Psalm 100:2) stresses joy in the service of God.[citation needed] A popular teaching by Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a 19th-century Chassidic Rabbi, is "Mitzvah Gedolah Le'hiyot Besimcha Tamid," it is a great mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. When a person is happy they are much more capable of serving God and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.[51]

The primary meaning of "happiness" in various European languages involves good fortune, chance or happening. The meaning in Greek philosophy, however, refers primarily to ethics. In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, Latin equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia, or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God's essence in the next life.[52] Human complexities, like reason and cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. In temporal life, the contemplation of God, the infinitely Beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. Beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.[53]

While religion is often formalised and community-oriented, spirituality tends to be individually based and not as formalised. In a 2014 study, 320 children, ages 812, in both public and private schools, were given a Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire assessing the correlation between spirituality and happiness. Spirituality and not religious practices (praying, attending church services) correlated positively with the child's happiness; the more spiritual the child was, the happier the child was. Spirituality accounted for about 326% of the variance in happiness.[54]

The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who 2300 years ago sought to give advice to the ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self) and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if we did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.[55]

Al-Ghazali (10581111) the Muslim Sufi thinker wrote the Alchemy of Happiness, a manual of spiritual instruction throughout the Muslim world and widely practiced today.[citation needed]

The Hindu thinker Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.[56]

In the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for its own sake, unlike riches, honor, health or friendship. He observed that men sought riches, or honor, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. Note that eudaimonia, the term we translate as "happiness", is for Aristotle an activity rather than an emotion or a state.[57] Thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way. Specifically, Aristotle argues that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. He arrives at this claim with the Function Argument. Basically, if it's right, every living thing has a function, that which it uniquely does. For humans, Aristotle contends, our function is to reason, since it is that alone that we uniquely do. And performing one's function well, or excellently, is one's good. Thus, the life of excellent rational activity is the happy life. Aristotle does not leave it that, however. For he argues that there is a second best life for those incapable of excellent rational activity.This second best life is the life of moral virtue.[citation needed]

Many ethicists make arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Utilitarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior.[citation needed]

Friedrich Nietzsche savagely critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating "Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does." Nietzsche meant that the making happiness one's ultimate goal, the aim of one's existence "makes one contemptible;" Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." Thus Nietzsche introduces the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers; these small, "last men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle are meant to seem contemptible to Nietzsche's reader. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.[58][59]

According to St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, man's last end is happiness: "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness."[60] However, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.[61] In turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to happiness is according to Aquinas caused by laws: natural law and divine law. These laws, in turn, were according to Aquinas caused by a first cause, or God.[citation needed]

According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "Consequently happiness consists principally in such an operation, viz. in the contemplation of Divine things." And, "the last end cannot consist in the active life, which pertains to the practical intellect." So: "Therefore the last and perfect happiness, which we await in the life to come, consists entirely in contemplation. But imperfect happiness, such as can be had here, consists first and principally in contemplation, but secondarily, in an operation of the practical intellect directing human actions and passions."[62]

Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. On average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.[63][64] This has been explained by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the same percentual increase in the GNP produces the same increase in happiness for wealthy countries as for poor countries.[65][66][67][68] Increasingly, academic economists and international economic organisations are arguing for and developing multi-dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. Work by Paul Anand and colleagues helps to highlight the fact that there many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgement reflect, in part, the presence of salient constraints, and that fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course.

Libertarian think tank Cato Institute claims that economic freedom correlates strongly with happiness[69] preferably within the context of a western mixed economy, with free press and a democracy. According to certain standards, East European countries (ruled by Communist parties) were less happy than Western ones, even less happy than other equally poor countries.[70]

However, much empirical research in the field of happiness economics, such as that by Benjamin Radcliff, professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame, supports the contention that (at least in democratic countries) life satisfaction is strongly and positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong labor unions.[71] Similarly, there is evidence that public policies that reduce poverty and support a strong middle class, such as a higher minimum wage, strongly affects average levels of well-being.[72]

It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.[73] According to professor Edward Glaeser, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, because they have also more important aims. Therefore, the government should not decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by patronizing them but let the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.[74]

It has been argued that happiness at work is one of the driving forces behind positive outcomes at work, rather than just being a resultant product.[75]

Several scales have been used to measure happiness:

The UK began to measure national well being in 2012,[83] following Bhutan which already measured gross national happiness.[citation needed]

A correlation has been found between hormone levels and happiness. SSRIs, such as Prozac, are used to adjust the levels of seratonin in the clinically unhappy. Researchers, such as Alexander, have indicated that many peoples usage of narcotics may be the unwitting result of attempts to readjust hormone levels to cope with situations that make them unhappy.[84]

A positive relationship has been found between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of the brain and the subject's subjective happiness score.[85] Interestingly meditation, including mindfulness, based interventions have been found to correlate with a significant gray matter increase within the precuneus.[86][87][88][89][90]

In 2005 a study conducted by Andrew Steptow and Michael Marmot at University College London, found that happiness is related to biological markers that play an important role in health.[91] The researchers aimed to analyze whether there was any association between well-being and three biological markers: heart rate, cortisol levels, and plasma fibrinogen levels. Interestingly, the participants who rated themselves the least happy had cortisol levels that were 48% higher than those who rated themselves as the most happy. The least happy subjects also had a large plasma fibrinogen response to two stress-inducing tasks: the Stroop test, and tracing a star seen in a mirror image. Repeating their studies three years later Steptow and Marmot found that participants who scored high in positive emotion continued to have lower levels of cortisol and fibrinogen, as well as a lower heart rate.[citation needed]

In Happy People Live Longer (2011),[92] Bruno Frey reported that happy people live 14% longer, increasing longevity 7.5 to 10 years and Richard Davidson's bestseller (2012) The Emotional Life of Your Brain argues that positive emotion and happiness benefit long-term health.[citation needed]

However, in 2015 a study building on earlier research found that happiness has no effect on mortality.[93] "This "basic belief that if you're happier you're going to live longer. That's just not true."[94] Consistent results are that "apart from good health, happy people were more likely to be older, not smoke, have fewer educational qualifications, do strenuous exercise, live with a partner, do religious or group activities and sleep for eight hours a night."[94]

Happiness does however seem to have a protective impact on immunity. The tendency to experience positive emotions was associated with greater resistance to colds and flu in interventional studies irrespective of other factors such as smoking, drinking, exercise, and sleep.[95][96]

Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity,[97][98][99] happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to success in business. However a growing number of scholars, including Boehm and Lyubomirsky, argue that it should be viewed as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace.[75][100]

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Integration of Traditional and Alternative Medicine

Office-based Holistic and Integrative Medicine, Naples, FL (2007 - Present)

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Most of the testing can be performed at the Hughes Center For Functional Medicine. During your medical consultation, Dr. Hughes or Dr. Roberts will determine which tests are needed and then our nurses will review testing recommendations, instructions (for instance, fasting or non-fasting, etc.) and costs, if applicable.

Your financial resources and how much testing you are interested in completing are taken into account and the plan for testing is reviewed with you. Testing is frequently done to assess nutritional status including amino acids, fatty acids, oxidative stress, vitamin levels, mitochondrial function, food allergies, and heavy metals.

Many other tests are available, including genetic testing for a variety of conditions, hormone evaluations, bone health, gastrointestinal health, adrenal function and many others. Some testing can be performed at home with test kits to collect urine, saliva or stool. Our nurse will review the instructions for completing these tests at home.

While the testing gives a more complete picture of your status, effective care can be implemented without it, or testing can be done over time. You should not let this prevent you from seeing one of the doctors.

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Summary

Veterinarians check for symptoms of illnesses in pets.

Veterinarians care for the health of animals and work to improve public health. They diagnose, treat, and research medical conditions and diseases of pets, livestock, and other animals.

Most veterinarians work in private clinics and hospitals. Others travel to farms, work in laboratories or classrooms, or work for the government.

Veterinarians must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree from an accredited veterinary college and a state license.

The median annual wage for veterinarians was $88,490 in May 2015.

Employment of veterinarians is projected to grow 9 percent from 2014 to 2024, faster than the average for all occupations. Candidates should expect very strong competition for available veterinarian positions, especially in companion animal care. Those with specializations and prior work experience should have the best job opportunities.

Explore resources for employment and wages by state and area for veterinarians.

Compare the job duties, education, job growth, and pay of veterinarians with similar occupations.

Learn more about veterinarians by visiting additional resources, including O*NET, a source on key characteristics of workers and occupations.

Veterinarians use x rays to diagnose animals.

Veterinarians care for the health of animals and work to improve public health. They diagnose, treat, and research medical conditions and diseases of pets, livestock, and other animals.

Veterinarians typically do the following:

Veterinarians treat the injuries and illnesses of pets and other animals with a variety of medical equipment, including surgical tools and x-ray and ultrasound machines. They provide treatment for animals that is similar to the services a physician provides to treat humans.

The following are examples of types of veterinarians:

Companion animal veterinarians treat pets and generally work in private clinics and hospitals. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, more than 75 percent of veterinarians who work in private clinical practice treat pets. They most often care for cats and dogs, but also treat other pets, such as birds, ferrets, and rabbits. These veterinarians diagnose and provide treatment for animal health problems, consult with owners of animals about preventive healthcare, and carry out medical and surgical procedures, such as vaccinations, dental work, and setting fractures.

Equine veterinarians work with horses. In 2014, about 6 percent of private practice veterinarians diagnosed and treated horses.

Food animal veterinarians work with farm animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep, which are raised to be food sources. In 2014, about 7 percent of private practice veterinarians treated food animals. They spend much of their time at farms and ranches treating illnesses and injuries and testing for and vaccinating against disease. They may advise owners or managers about feeding, housing, and general health practices.

Food safety and inspection veterinarians inspect and test livestock and animal products for major animal diseases, provide vaccines to treat animals, enhance animal welfare, conduct research to improve animal health, and enforce government food safety regulations. They design and administer animal and public health programs for the prevention and control of diseases transmissible among animals and between animals and people.

Research veterinarians work in laboratories, conducting clinical research on human and animal health problems. These veterinarians may perform tests on animals to identify the effects of drug therapies, or they may test new surgical techniques. They may also research how to prevent, control, and eliminate food- and animal-borne illnesses and diseases.

Some veterinarians become postsecondary teachers at colleges and universities.

Most veterinarians work in veterinary clinics.

Veterinarians held about 78,300 jobs in 2014, of which about 74 percent were in the veterinary services industry. Others held positions in federal, state, or local government; animal production, and in colleges and universities. About 1 in 6 veterinarians were self-employed in 2016.

Most veterinarians work in private clinics and hospitals. Others travel to farms, work in laboratories or classrooms, or work for the government.

Veterinarians who treat horses or food animals travel between their offices and farms and ranches. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may have to perform surgery, often in remote locations.

Veterinarians who work in food safety and inspection travel to farms, slaughterhouses, and food-processing plants to inspect the health of animals and ensure that safety protocols are being followed by the facility.

Veterinarians who conduct research work primarily in offices and laboratories. They spend much of their time dealing with people, rather than animals.

The work can be emotionally stressful, as veterinarians deal with sick animals and the animals anxious owners. Also, the workplace can be noisy, as animals make noise when sick or being handled. Working on farms and ranches, in slaughterhouses, or with wildlife can also be physically demanding.

When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, and scratched. In addition, veterinarians working with diseased animals risk being infected by the disease.

Veterinarians often work additional hours. Some work nights or weekends, and they may have to respond to emergencies outside of scheduled work hours.

Veterinarians can choose specialties such as companion animals or farm animals.

Veterinarians must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree from an accredited veterinary college and a state license.

Veterinarians must complete a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree at an accredited college of veterinary medicine. There are currently 30 colleges with accredited programs in the United States. A veterinary medicine program generally takes 4 years to complete and includes classroom, laboratory, and clinical components.

Although not required, most applicants to veterinary school have a bachelors degree. Veterinary medical colleges typically require applicants to have taken many science classes, including biology, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, zoology, microbiology, and animal science. Most programs also require math, humanities, and social science courses.

Admission to veterinary programs is competitive, and less than half of all applicants were accepted in 2014.

In veterinary medicine programs, students take courses on animal anatomy and physiology, as well as disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Most programs include 3 years of classroom, laboratory, and clinical work. Students typically spend the final year of the 4-year program doing clinical rotations in a veterinary medical center or hospital.

Veterinarians must be licensed in order to practice in the United States. Licensing requirements vary by state, but all states require prospective veterinarians to complete an accredited veterinary program and to pass the North American Veterinary Licensing Examination. Veterinarians working for the state or federal government may not be required to have a state license, because each agency has different requirements.

Most states not only require the national exam but also have a state exam that covers state laws and regulations. Few states accept licenses from other states, so veterinarians who want to be licensed in another state usually must take that states exam.

The American Veterinary Medical Association offers certification in 40 specialties, such as surgery, microbiology, and internal medicine. Although certification is not required for veterinarians, it can show exceptional skill and expertise in a particular field. To sit for a specialty certification exam, veterinarians must have a certain number of years of experience in the field, complete additional education, and complete a residency program, typically lasting 3 to 4 years. Requirements vary by specialty.

Some veterinary medical colleges weigh experience heavily during the admissions process. Formal experience, such as previous work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusiness, research, or some area of health science, is particularly advantageous. Less formal experience, such as working with animals on a farm, at a stable, or in an animal shelter, can also be helpful.

Although graduates of a veterinary program can begin practicing once they receive their license, some veterinarians pursue further education and training. Some new veterinary graduates enter internship or residency programs to gain specialized experience.

Compassion. Veterinarians must be compassionate when working with animals and their owners. They must treat animals with kindness and respect, and must be sensitive when dealing with the animal owners.

Communication skills. Strong communication skills are essential for veterinarians, who must be able to discuss their recommendations and explain treatment options to animal owners and give instructions to their staff.

Decisionmaking skills. Veterinarians must decide the correct method for treating the injuries and illnesses of animals. For instance, deciding to euthanize a sick animal can be difficult.

Management skills. Management skills are important for veterinarians who manage private clinics or laboratories, or direct teams of technicians or inspectors. In these settings, they are responsible for providing direction, delegating work, and overseeing daily operations.

Manual dexterity. Manual dexterity is important for veterinarians, because they must control their hand movements and be precise when treating injuries and performing surgery.

Problem-solving skills. Veterinarians need strong problem-solving skills because they must figure out what is ailing animals. Those who test animals to determine the effects of drug therapies also need excellent diagnostic skills.

Median annual wages, May 2015

The median annual wage for veterinarians was $88,490 in May 2015. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $53,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $158,260.

Veterinarians often work additional hours. Some work nights or weekends, and they may have to respond to emergencies outside of scheduled work hours.

Percent change in employment, projected 2014-24

Employment of veterinarians is projected to grow 9 percent from 2014 to 2024, faster than the average for all occupations. Veterinarians will continue to be needed to diagnose and treat animals.

Veterinary medicine has advanced considerably. Veterinarians are able to offer more services today that are comparable to healthcare for humans, including more complicated procedures like cancer treatments and kidney transplants.

There also will be employment growth in areas such as food and animal safety, where organizations work to prevent foodborne contaminations and diseases in animals; public health, where organizations work to protect the health of an entire population; and disease control. Veterinarians will continue to be needed to inspect the food supply and to ensure animal and human health.

Candidates can expect competition for most veterinarian positions. Job seekers with a specialization and prior work experience should have the best job opportunities.

The number of new graduates from veterinary schools has increased to roughly 3,000 per year, resulting in greater competition for jobs than in recent years. Additionally, most veterinary graduates are attracted to companion animal care, so there will be fewer job opportunities in that field.

Job opportunities in farm animal care will be better, because fewer veterinarians compete to work on large animals. Also, there will be some job opportunities available in the federal government in food safety, animal health, and public health. Job opportunities will also become available as veterinarians retire opening up positions for new veterinarians.

Veterinary schools also train veterinarians for positions in other fields, such as public health, disease control, corporate sales, and population studies. With potentially fewer opportunities in companion animal care, many graduating veterinarians will likely have better job prospects in these areas.

Veterinarians

The Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) program produces employment and wage estimates annually for over 800 occupations. These estimates are available for the nation as a whole, for individual states, and for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. The link(s) below go to OES data maps for employment and wages by state and area.

Occupational employment projections are developed for all states by Labor Market Information (LMI) or individual state Employment Projections offices. All state projections data are available at http://www.projectionscentral.com. Information on this site allows projected employment growth for an occupation to be compared among states or to be compared within one state. In addition, states may produce projections for areas; there are links to each states websites where these data may be retrieved.

Americas Career InfoNet includes hundreds of occupational profiles with data available by state and metro area. There are links in the left-hand side menu to compare occupational employment by state and occupational wages by local area or metro area. There is also a salary info tool to search for wages by zip code.

This table shows a list of occupations with job duties that are similar to those of veterinarians.

Agricultural and food scientists research ways to improve the efficiency and safety of agricultural establishments and products.

Animal care and service workers provide care for animals. They feed, groom, bathe, and exercise pets and other nonfarm animals. Job tasks vary by position and place of work.

Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.

Physicians and surgeons diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses. Physicians examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. Surgeons operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and deformities, such as cleft palates.

Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers look after animals in laboratories, animal hospitals, and clinics. They care for the animals by performing routine tasks under the supervision of scientists, veterinarians, and veterinary technologists and technicians.

Veterinary technologists and technicians perform medical tests under the supervision of a licensed veterinarian to assist in diagnosing the injuries and illnesses of animals.

Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and other wildlife and how they interact with their ecosystems. They study the physical characteristics of animals, animal behaviors, and the impacts humans have on wildlife and natural habitats.

The What They Do tab describes the typical duties and responsibilities of workers in the occupation, including what tools and equipment they use and how closely they are supervised. This tab also covers different types of occupational specialties.

The Work Environment tab includes the number of jobs held in the occupation and describes the workplace, the level of physical activity expected, and typical hours worked. It may also discuss the major industries that employed the occupation. This tab may also describe opportunities for part-time work, the amount and type of travel required, any safety equipment that is used, and the risk of injury that workers may face.

The How to Become One tab describes how to prepare for a job in the occupation. This tab can include information on education, training, work experience, licensing and certification, and important qualities that are required or helpful for entering or working in the occupation.

The Pay tab describes typical earnings and how workers in the occupation are compensatedannual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, tips, or bonuses. Within every occupation, earnings vary by experience, responsibility, performance, tenure, and geographic area. This tab may also provide information on earnings in the major industries employing the occupation.

The State and Area Data tab provides links to state and area occupational data from the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) program, state projections data from Projections Central, and occupational information from the Department of Labor's Career InfoNet.

The Job Outlook tab describes the factors that affect employment growth or decline in the occupation, and in some instances, describes the relationship between the number of job seekers and the number of job openings.

The Similar Occupations tab describes occupations that share similar duties, skills, interests, education, or training with the occupation covered in the profile.

The More Information tab provides the Internet addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide additional information on the occupation. This tab also includes links to relevant occupational information from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET).

The wage at which half of the workers in the occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. Median wage data are from the BLS Occupational Employment Statistics survey. In May 2015, the median annual wage for all workers was $36,200.

Additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation.

Typical level of education that most workers need to enter this occupation.

Work experience that is commonly considered necessary by employers, or is a commonly accepted substitute for more formal types of training or education.

The employment, or size, of this occupation in 2014, which is the base year of the 2014-24 employment projections.

The projected percent change in employment from 2014 to 2024. The average growth rate for all occupations is 7 percent.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

Typical level of education that most workers need to enter this occupation.

Additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The percent change of employment for each occupation from 2014 to 2024.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The projected percent change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The wage at which half of the workers in the occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. Median wage data are from the BLS Occupational Employment Statistics survey. In May 2015, the median annual wage for all workers was $36,200.

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U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: How to Become a Veterinarian