StemCell Therapy

Stem cells have tremendous promise to help us understand and treat a range of diseases, injuries and other health-related conditions. Their potential is evident in the use of blood stem cells to treat diseases of the blood, a therapy that has saved the lives of thousands of children with leukemia; and can be seen in the use of stem cells for tissue grafts to treat diseases or injury to the bone, skin and surface of the eye. Important clinical trials involving stem cells are underway for many other conditions and researchers continue to explore new avenues using stem cells in medicine.

There is still a lot to learn about stem cells, however, and their current applications as treatments are sometimes exaggerated by the media and other parties who do not fully understand the science and current limitations, and also by clinics looking to capitalize on the hype by selling treatments to chronically ill or seriously injured patients. The information on this page is intended to help you understand both the potential and the limitations of stem cells at this point in time, and to help you spot some of the misinformation that is widely circulated by clinics offering unproven treatments.

It is important to discuss these Nine Things to Know and any research or information you gather with your primary care physician and other trusted members of your healthcare team in deciding what is right for you.

See more here:
Nine Things to Know About Stem Cell Treatments

Experience Normande genetics

Another breeding season is here, along with a new opportunity to experience Normande genetics. Please take a look at our Fall 2016proofsand, if it's your first time, take a leap of faith! Whether you graze or not, crossing with Normande offers many benefits. Check our the various pages of our website for more details about the breed's many strong qualities. See more information on ourcatalog pageon how to choose our bulls. As usual, graziers are advised to focus on bulls with low stature indexes for medium size cows if they cross with Holsteins. Low stature is less important if you cross with Jerseys. Finally, do not forget to follow us on Facebook and Twitter for quicker and more frequent news updates.

Normande Genetics was created in 1997 to bring the top dairy genetics of the Normande breed to the American dairyland. Because the U.S. dairy industry had long since cut its grass roots in favor of intensive, high-energy, grain-based systems, we believed that genetics here were no longer well suited to grass-based operations. That insight has been confirmed consistently in interactions with American dairy farmers, whose herds are suffering loss of functionality in fertility and longevity, owing to over-selection for productivity, and secondarily, dairyness.

Originally focused on grazing daires, we quickly realize that the need for different genetics applies to all dairies, and includes conventional ones. Intensive operations are increasingly faced with fertility and health issues, and many of these issues can be attributed to frail genetics or inbreeding.

While the U.S. dairy sire selection process has started to move towards improving functional traits, it will take time to see results in the field. In addition, in-breeding and a narrowing gene pool for most dairy breeds worldwide add to the problem, so there is no easy and short-term answer to the weakening of health traits.

Thats why crossbreeding makes sense. After all, dairy farmers want to lower their cost of operation while increasing their revenue, which means profits and margins replace production as the main benchmarks of success. In turn, genetic traits that contribute to the bottom line become essential, while selecting for milk production becomes relatively less important. For more information about why crossbreeding is a useful tool, you can download this article:

download "Why Crossbreeding?" Article (PDF)

The Normandes traits serve the objectives of both grass-based and conventional operations in two ways: bringing strength and functionality while adding value whenever possible. The Normande has outstanding attributes as a purebred or in a cross-breeding program. The breed has shown successful examples with all U.S. dairy breeds and is often included in three-way crossbreeding programs. The University of Minnesotas new experimental organic herd includes such a cross.

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normande genetics: sustainable genetics that breed quality

The aging of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods. While wine is perishable and capable of deteriorating, complex chemical reactions involving a wine's sugars, acids and phenolic compounds (such as tannins) can alter the aroma, color, mouthfeel and taste of the wine in a way that may be more pleasing to the taster. The ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment.[1][2] The quality of an aged wine varies significantly bottle-by-bottle, depending on the conditions under which it was stored, and the condition of the bottle and cork, and thus it is said that rather than good old vintages, there are good old bottles. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, and old wines are often sold for extraordinary prices. However, the vast majority of wine is not aged, and even wine that is aged is rarely aged for long; it is estimated that 90% of wine is meant to be consumed within a year of production, and 99% of wine within 5 years.[3]

The Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried "straw wines" were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents. These wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after winesFalernian and Surrentinewere prized for their ability to age for decades. In the Book of Luke, it is noted that "old wine" was valued over "new wine" (Luke 5:39). The Greek physician Galen wrote that the "taste" of aged wine was desirable and that this could be accomplished by heating or smoking the wine, though, in Galen's opinion, these artificially aged wines were not as healthy to consume as naturally aged wines.[4]

Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent. Most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar. The older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines (like Malmsey and Sack) were being made in the Mediterranean and gaining attention for their aging ability. Similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that radically changed the wine industry's view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package and store wine in a virtually air-tight environment. The second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas and the East Indies. The English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had a pronounced effect on the wine trade. For producers, the cost and space of storing barrels or bottles of wine was prohibitive so a merchant class evolved with warehouses and the finances to facilitate aging wines for a longer period of time. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this situation dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes.[4]

There is a widespread misconception that wine always improves with age,[3] or that wine improves with extended aging, or that aging potential is an indicator of good wine. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young.[5] Aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months in the bottle.[5] Due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 510% of wine improves after 1 year, and only 1% improves after 510 years.[3][5]

In general, wines with a low pH (such as Pinot Noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age. Wines with high levels of phenols include Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo and Syrah.[4] The white wines with the longest aging potential tend to be those with a high amount of extract and acidity. The acidity in white wines, acting as a preservative, has a role similar to that of tannins in red wines. The process of making white wines, which includes little to no skin contact, means that white wines have a significantly lower amount of phenolic compounds, though barrel fermentation and oak aging can impart some phenols. Similarly, the minimal skin contact with ros wine limits their aging potential.[1][2][5]

After aging at the winery most wood-aged Ports, Sherries, Vins doux naturels, Vins de liqueur, basic level Ice wines and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage Ports and other bottled-aged Ports & Sherries will benefit from some additional aging.[4]

Champagne and other sparkling wines are infrequently aged, and frequently have no vintage year (no vintage, NV), but vintage champagne may be aged.[4] Aged champagne has traditionally been a peculiarly British affectation, and thus has been referred to as le got anglais "the English taste",[6] though this term also refers to a level of champagne sweetness. In principle champagne has aging potential, due to the acidity, and aged champagne has increased in popularity in the United States since the 1996 vintage.[7] A few French winemakers have advocated aging champagne, most notably Ren Collard (19212009).[8] In 2009, a 184-year-old bottle of Perrier-Jout was opened and tasted, still drinkable, with notes of "truffles and caramel", according to the experts.[9]

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson[5]

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson. Note that vintage, wine region and winemaking style can influence a wine's aging potential so Robinson's suggestion of years are very rough estimates of the most common examples of these wines.[5]

The ratio of sugars, acids and phenolics to water is a key determination of how well a wine can age. The less water in the grapes prior to harvest, the more likely the resulting wine will have some aging potential. Grape variety, climate, vintage and viticultural practice come into play here. Grape varieties with thicker skins, from a dry growing season where little irrigation was used and yields were kept low will have less water and a higher ratio of sugar, acids and phenolics. The process of making Eisweins, where water is removed from the grape during pressing as frozen ice crystals, has a similar effect of decreasing the amount of water and increasing aging potential.[2][5]

In winemaking, the duration of maceration or skin contact will influence how much phenolic compounds are leached from skins into the wine. Pigmented tannins, anthocyanins, colloids, tannin-polysaccharides and tannin-proteins not only influence a wine's resulting color but also act as preservatives. During fermentation adjustment to a wine's acid levels can be made with wines with lower pH having more aging potential. Exposure to oak either during fermentation or after (during barrel aging) will introduce more phenolic compounds to the wines. Prior to bottling, excessive fining or filtering of the wine could strip the wine of some phenolic solids and may lessen a wine's ability to age.[1][4]

The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops.[4] On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18F (8C) increase in temperature. Wine expert Karen MacNeil, recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55F (13C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69F (20C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120F (49C) for a few hours and not be damaged. However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The ultra-violet rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the free radicals that can develop in the wine and result in premature oxidation.[2][12]

Wines packaged in large format bottles, such as magnums and 3 liter Jeroboams, seem to age more slowly than wines packaged in regular 750 ml bottles or half bottles. This may be because of the greater proportion of oxygen exposed to the wine during the bottle process. The advent of alternative wine closures to cork, such as screw caps and synthetic corks have opened up recent discussions on the aging potential of wines sealed with these alternative closures. Currently there are no conclusive results and the topic is the subject of ongoing research.[1][4]

One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered "sick" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling the wine is exposed to some oxygen which causes a domino effect of chemical reactions with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of "bottle shock". During this time the wine could taste drastically different from how it did prior to bottling or how it will taste after the wine has settled. While many modern bottling lines try to treat the wine as gently as possible and utilize inert gases to minimize the amount of oxygen exposure, all wine goes through some period of bottle shock. The length of this period will vary with each individual wine.[2][5]

The transfer of off-flavours in the cork used to bottle a wine during prolonged aging can be detrimental to the quality of the bottle. The formation of cork taint is a complex process which may result from a wide range of factors ranging from the growing conditions of the cork oak, the processing of the cork into stoppers, or the molds growing on the cork itself.[1][2]

During the course of aging, a wine may slip into a "dumb phase" where its aromas and flavors are very muted. In Bordeaux this phase is called the age ingrat or "difficult age" and is likened to a teenager going through adolescence. The cause or length of time that this "dumb phase" will last is not yet fully understood and seems to vary from bottle to bottle.[12]

As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually lose its depth of color and begin to appear orange at the edges, and then later eventually turning brown. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processes that begin during fermentation and continue after bottling, these compounds bind together and aggregate. Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.[5]

During the aging process, the perception of a wine's acidity may change even though the total measurable amount of acidity is more or less constant throughout a wine's life. This is due to the esterification of the acids, combining with alcohols in complex array to form esters. In addition to making a wine taste less acidic, these esters introduce a range of possible aromas. Eventually the wine may age to a point where other components of the wine (such as a tannins and fruit) are less noticeable themselves, which will then bring back a heightened perception of wine acidity. Other chemical processes that occur during aging include the hydrolysis of flavor precursors which detach themselves from glucose molecules and introduce new flavor notes in the older wine and aldehydes become oxidized. The interaction of certain phenolics develop what is known as tertiary aromas which are different from the primary aromas that are derived from the grape and during fermentation.[2][4]

As a wine starts to mature, its bouquet will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen. Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its "peak". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant.[4]

The natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate the ester of ethanol and acetic acidis the most abundant ester in wines. Other combinations of organic alcohols (such as phenol-containing compounds) and organic acids lead to a variety of different esters in wines, contributing to their different flavours, smells and tastes. Of course, when compared to sulfuric acid conditions, the acid conditions in a wine are mild, so yield is low (often in tenths or hundredths of a percentage point by volume) and take years for ester to accumulate.[1]

Coates Law of Maturity is a principle used in wine tasting relating to the aging ability of wine. Developed by the British Master of Wine, Clive Coates, the principle states that a wine will remain at its peak (or optimal) drinking quality for a duration of time that is equal to the time of maturation required to reach its optimal quality. During the evolution (aging) of a wine certain flavors, aromas and textures appear and fade. Rather than developing and fading in unison, these traits each operate on a unique evolutionary path and time line. The principle allows for the subjectivity of individual tastes because it follows the logic that positive traits that appeal to one particular wine taster will continue to persist along the principle's guideline while for another taster these traits might not be positive and therefore not applicable to the guideline. Wine expert Tom Stevenson has noted that there is logic in Coates' principle and that he has yet to encounter an anomaly or wine that debunks it.[13]

An example of the principle in practice would be a wine that someone acquires when it is 9 years of age, but finds it dull. A year later the drinker finds this wine very pleasing in texture, aroma and mouthfeel. Under the Coates Law of Maturity the wine will continue to be drunk at an optimal maturation for that drinker until it has reached 20 years of age at which time those positive traits that the drinker perceives will start to fade.[13]

There is a long history of using artificial means to try to accelerate the natural aging process. In Ancient Rome a smoke chamber known as a fumarium was used to enhance the flavor of wine through artificial aging. Amphorae were placed in the chamber, which was built on top of a heated hearth, in order to impart a smoky flavor in the wine that also seemed to sharpen the acidity. The wine would sometimes come out of the fumarium with a paler color just like aged wine.[14] Modern winemaking techniques like micro-oxygenation can have the side effect of artificially aging the wine. In the production of Madeira and rancio wines, the wines are deliberately exposed to excessive temperatures to accelerate the maturation of the wine. Other techniques used to artificially age wine (with inconclusive results on their effectiveness) include shaking the wine, exposing it to radiation, magnetism or ultra-sonic waves.[4] More recently, experiments with artificial aging through high-voltage electricity have produced results above the remaining techniques, as assessed by a panel of wine tasters.[15] Other artificial wine-aging gadgets include the "Clef du Vin", which is a metallic object that is dipped into wine and purportedly ages the wine one year for every second of dipping. The product has received mixed reviews from wine commentators.[16]

The rest is here:
Aging of wine - Wikipedia

Introduction and Program Goals

The Genetic Counseling Training Program, leading to a Master of Science degree in Genetic Counselings, is a two-year academic program comprised of didactic course work, laboratory exposure, research experience and extensive clinical training. The program, directed by Anne L. Matthews, R.N, Ph.D., is an integral component of the teaching and research programs in the Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences (G&GS) at CWRU under the leadership of Dr. Anthony Wynshaw-Boris, MD. Ph.D., chairman of G&GS and the program's medical director, Shawn McCandless M.D., Associate Professor of G&GS and Pediatrics and Director of the Center for Human Genetics, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center. The Program is accredited by the Accreditation Counseling of Genetic Counseling (ACGC) and graduates of the program are eligible to apply for Active Candidate Status and sit for the American Board of Genetic Counseling certification examination.

The overall objective of the Genetic Counseling Program is to prepare students with the appropriate knowledge and experiences to function as genetic counselors in a wide range of settings and roles. With unprecedented advances in our understanding of the genetic and molecular control of gene expression and development, and in our ability to apply this knowledge clinically, the Program strives to train students who can interface between patients, clinicians and molecular and human geneticists. Students gain insightful and multifaceted skills that will enable them to be effective genetic counselors, aware of the many new technical advances and often-difficult ethical, legal and social issues that have surfaced in the light of the Human Genome Project. Graduates of the Program will be prepared to work in a variety of settings including both adult and pediatric genetics clinics, specialty clinics such as cancer genetics and metabolic clinics, and prenatal diagnosis clinics, as well as in areas of research or commercial genetics laboratories relevant to genetic counseling and human genetics.

A unique aspect of the Genetic Counseling Training Program that it is housed within Case Western Reserve's Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences that is internationally known for both its clinical expertise and cutting edge research in molecular genetics, model organisms and human genetics. Thus, the Department of G&GS at CWRU provides an interface between human and medical genetics with basic genetics and provides an exciting atmosphere in which to learn and develop professionally. The direct access to both clinical resources and advanced technologies in human and model organisms affords students with an unparalleled environment for achievement. The Graduate Program in Genetics in the Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences provides an interactive and collaborative environment for both pre (genetic counseling and PhD students)- and post-doctoral trainees to come together in a collegial atmosphere. By fostering interactions between pre- and post-doctoral trainees in genetic counseling, medical genetics, and basic research at an early stage of their careers, it is anticipated that graduates will be well-rounded professionals with an understanding of the importance of both clinical and basic research endeavors. Moreover, such resources as the Department of Biomedical Ethics, the Center for Genetic Research, Ethics and Law, the Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, and the Law-Medicine Center provide for an enriched learning experience for students.

The curriculum consists of 40 semester hours: 22 semester hours of didactic course work and 7 semester hours of research. Additionally, there are three 10-week clinical rotations, one 3-week laboratory rotation and one 6-week summer rotation required of all students, which provide an additional 11 credit hours. Courses include material covering basic genetics concepts, embryology, medical genetics, biochemical genetics, molecular genetics, cytogenetics, genomics, cancer genetics, population genetics, genetic counseling principles, human development, psychosocial issues, interviewing techniques, and ethical and professional issues in genetic counseling.

Clinical rotations include one intensive three-week laboratory rotation in diagnostic cytogenetics and clinical molecular genetics as well as the Maternal Serum Screening program. There are three 10-week clinical rotations during year 2 during which students obtain clinical experience in General Genetics (children and adults) including Specialty Clinics such as Marfan Clinic, Prader-Willi Clinic and Craniofacial Clinic; Prenatal Diagnosis Clinic, and Cancer Genetics Clinic. These rotations take place at The Center for Human Genetics at University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, the Genomic Medicine Institute at the Cleveland Clinic and MetroHealth Medical Center. Additionally, there is one off-site rotation - a six-week clinical rotation which is held at Akron Children's Hospital in Akron Ohio during the summer. Moreover, students rotate through the Cleveland-based institutions for weekly observational experiences starting early in year 1 of the program.

Students are also required to attend and participate in a number of other activities such as weekly Clinical Patient Conferences, Genetics Grand Rounds, Departmental Seminars and Journal Club. Students also participate with the doctoral graduate students in the Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences' annual retreat and present their research projects during the poster sessions. In addition, counseling students present their research during the program's Research Showcase. Students also have an opportunity to give educational talks to local schools, participate in DNA Day at local high schools and other groups when available.

Tuition for the 2016-2017 academic year is $1,774.00 per semester hour. Currently, other fees include student health insurance ($986 per semester) and a student activity fee of $14.00 per semester.

The Department of Genetics is unable to provide financial aid or research/teaching assistantships to students; however, it does award some scholarship funding in the form of a monthly stipend to genetic counseling students. The amount of the stipend is determined yearly and will be shared with applicants at the time of their interviews. In addition, the costs of the on-line embryology course as well as the CWRU Technology fee of $426.00 per year are covered by the Department. Moreover, students receive funds to cover the costs associated with their research projects and second year students receive funds to travel to the National Society of Genetic Counselors' annual education conference held in the fall.

Financial aid is available to graduate students. The university has extensive information regarding financial aid and scholarship opportunities to assist students in funding their education. For additional information or assistance, please contact the Office of University Financial Aid at http://case.edu/stage/admissions/financialaid.html or (216) 368-4530.

Clarice Young at (216) 368-3431 or email: clarice.young@case.edu

OR

The Program Director:

Please Note: The Direct Application link will take you to the School for Graduate Studies webpage. Go to Prospective Students - Admissions Information - Graduate Program Applications. You will see a link on the right hand side of the page entitled Application Log In to begin your application.

The application includes:

Fulfillment of the requirements for admission to the School of Graduate Studies at Case Western Reserve University must be met as well as those required by the Genetic Counseling Training Program. An applicant having graduated with excellent academic credentials (minimum undergraduate grade point average of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale) from a fully accredited university or college. Complete credentials must be on file with the School of Graduate Studies

The average GPA for matriculating students is 3.5 and GRE mean scores are approximately, 60-70th percentiles and above. However, we take a holistic view of the applicant's complete file in determining admission, which means we look at everything the applicant has submitted. A high GPA or GRE score will not automatically lead to admission; neither will low scores automatically lead to a denial. *While the CWRU application form asks for your GRE scores, please include the percentile score as well.

The Personal Statement is extremely important and applicants need to pay specific attention to how they present themselves in their Personal Statement. Aspects to remember include: Is the applicant's Personal Statement grammatically sound, and does it give us a clear picture as to who the applicant is? Applicants' should emphasize those experiences which have directly assisted them in becoming aware of and knowledgeable about the genetic counseling profession. Genetic counselors are highly motivated and hardworking individuals. Thus, the admissions committee looks for applicants who demonstrate initiative, self-direction, excellent communication skills and who have "gone the extra mile" to show their passion for becoming a genetic counselor.

Letters of recommendation should be written by individuals who can provide an accurate picture of your academic capabilities, your communication skills (both written and spoken) and your potential to successfully complete graduate education. At least two referees should be faculty from your past institutions. Other excellent referee sources include genetic counselors you have shadowed or supervisors of internships or advocacy experiences which you have had. Recommendation letters from friends or family members are discouraged. Please note, while CWRU provides an on-line recommendation form for referees to complete, your referee should also provide a personal letter to accompany the form.

While the number of applications received by the Program varies from year to year, in general we receive approximately 60+ applications each year. At this time, the Program is able to accept 6 students per year.

January 1st of each year is the application deadline. It is important that all required materials such as GRE scores (including their percentiles), transcripts from all institutions in which you have completed coursework and letters of reference be submitted by the application deadline if you wish to have your application reviewed by the Admissions Committee. If you will be taking a prerequisite course or courses in the upcoming semester that will not be reflected on your current transcripts, please let us know in your personal statement which course or courses you will be taking to meet the pre-requisites. Also, please submit a current CV or resume along with your personal statement. The Program only admits one class per year -- in fall semester. Because of the intensive nature of the Program, all students must be full time, we are unable to accommodate part-time students.

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Genetic Counseling Program Overview - School of Medicine

Dear Holistic, Alternative and Integrated Health Practitioners,

Peter Redmond D.C.

and all persons interested in Integrative Medicine, We cordially invite you to join our Association for Integrative Medicine.

We believe that the combined knowledge of old and new healing modalities is ultimately superior to a single-model approach to health and wellness.

It is our philosophy that diverse modalities such as Massage, Counseling, Reiki, Yoga, Shiatsu, Biofeedback, Chiropractic, Hypnosis, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, Cranio-Sacral Therapy, the Arts Therapies, Western Medicine and many others can work in conjunction with each other as part of a unified team rather than in competition. This integrated approach ultimately will lead to safer, faster and more effective healthcare.

If you would like to be considered for a position on our Board of directors or advisory Board, please send a written statement as to how you are qualified for the position, why you would make an effective Board member, how you bring diversity or representation of the general public to the Board, and why you are interested in the post, your vision for AIM and how you would be able to assist in achieving it.

For any additional information, questions or comments, please dont hesitate to write or call us.

Sincerely Yours,

Peter Redmond, D.C. and Eric Miller, Ph.D.

Executive Director Eric Miller

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Association for Integrative Medicine

The innate immune system, also known as the non-specific immune system or in-born immunity system,[1] is an important subsystem of the overall immune system that comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms. The cells of the innate system recognize and respond to pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the adaptive immune system, the system does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host.[2] Innate immune systems provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life.

The innate immune system is an evolutionarily older defense strategy, and is the dominant immune system found in plants, fungi, insects, and primitive multicellular organisms.[3]

The major functions of the vertebrate innate immune system include:

Anatomical barriers include physical, chemical and biological barriers. The epithelial surfaces form a physical barrier that is impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first line of defense against invading organisms.[4]Desquamation (shedding) of skin epithelium also helps remove bacteria and other infectious agents that have adhered to the epithelial surfaces. Lack of blood vessels and inability of the epidermis to retain moisture, presence of sebaceous glands in the dermis provides an environment unsuitable for the survival of microbes.[4] In the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, movement due to peristalsis or cilia, respectively, helps remove infectious agents.[4] Also, mucus traps infectious agents.[4] The gut flora can prevent the colonization of pathogenic bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or attachment to cell surfaces.[4] The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent infection of the eyes and mouth.[4]

Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells and serves to establish a physical barrier against the spread of infection, and to promote healing of any damaged tissue following the clearance of pathogens.[5]

The process of acute inflammation is initiated by cells already present in all tissues, mainly resident macrophages, dendritic cells, histiocytes, Kupffer cells, and mastocytes. These cells present receptors contained on the surface or within the cell, named pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules, collectively referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of their PRRs recognizes a PAMP) and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation.

Chemical factors produced during inflammation (histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) sensitize pain receptors, cause local vasodilation of the blood vessels, and attract phagocytes, especially neutrophils.[5] Neutrophils then trigger other parts of the immune system by releasing factors that summon additional leukocytes and lymphocytes. Cytokines produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system mediate the inflammatory response. These cytokines include TNF, HMGB1, and IL-1.[6]

The inflammatory response is characterized by the following symptoms:

The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps, or complements, the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. The cascade is composed of many plasma proteins, synthesized in the liver, primarily by hepatocytes. The proteins work together to:

Elements of the complement cascade can be found in many non-mammalian species including plants, birds, fish, and some species of invertebrates.[7]

All white blood cells (WBCs) are known as leukocytes. Leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single-cell organisms. Leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms. Unlike many other cells in the body, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow.[2]

The innate leukocytes include: Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, and function within the immune system by identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause infection.[3]

Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that reside in connective tissue and in the mucous membranes. They are intimately associated with wound healing and defense against pathogens, but are also often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis.[5] When activated, mast cells rapidly release characteristic granules, rich in histamine and heparin, along with various hormonal mediators and chemokines, or chemotactic cytokines into the environment. Histamine dilates blood vessels, causing the characteristic signs of inflammation, and recruits neutrophils and macrophages.[5]

The word 'phagocyte' literally means 'eating cell'. These are immune cells that engulf, or 'phagocytose', pathogens or particles. To engulf a particle or pathogen, a phagocyte extends portions of its plasma membrane, wrapping the membrane around the particle until it is enveloped (i.e., the particle is now inside the cell). Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside an endosome, which merges with a lysosome.[3] The lysosome contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism. In general, phagocytes patrol the body searching for pathogens, but are also able to react to a group of highly specialized molecular signals produced by other cells, called cytokines. The phagocytic cells of the immune system include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.

Phagocytosis of the hosts own cells is common as part of regular tissue development and maintenance. When host cells die, either by programmed cell death (also called apoptosis) or by cell injury due to a bacterial or viral infection, phagocytic cells are responsible for their removal from the affected site.[2] By helping to remove dead cells preceding growth and development of new healthy cells, phagocytosis is an important part of the healing process following tissue injury.

Macrophages, from the Greek, meaning "large eaters," are large phagocytic leukocytes, which are able to move outside of the vascular system by migrating across the walls of capillary vessels and entering the areas between cells in pursuit of invading pathogens. In tissues, organ-specific macrophages are differentiated from phagocytic cells present in the blood called monocytes. Macrophages are the most efficient phagocytes and can phagocytose substantial numbers of bacteria or other cells or microbes.[3] The binding of bacterial molecules to receptors on the surface of a macrophage triggers it to engulf and destroy the bacteria through the generation of a respiratory burst, causing the release of reactive oxygen species. Pathogens also stimulate the macrophage to produce chemokines, which summon other cells to the site of infection.[3]

Neutrophils, along with two other cell types (eosinophils and basophils; see below), are known as granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive lobed nuclei. Neutrophil granules contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi. Similar to macrophages, neutrophils attack pathogens by activating a respiratory burst. The main products of the neutrophil respiratory burst are strong oxidizing agents including hydrogen peroxide, free oxygen radicals and hypochlorite. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50-60% of the total circulating leukocytes, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection.[5] The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more than 100 billion neutrophils per day, and more than 10 times that many per day during acute inflammation.[5]

Dendritic cells (DCs) are phagocytic cells present in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin (where they are often called Langerhans cells), and the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines.[2] They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, but dendritic cells are not connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells are very important in the process of antigen presentation, and serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Basophils and eosinophils are cells related to the neutrophil (see above). When activated by a pathogen encounter, histamine-releasing basophils are important in the defense against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma.[3] Upon activation, eosinophils secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing parasites, but may also damage tissue during an allergic reaction. Activation and release of toxins by eosinophils are, therefore, tightly regulated to prevent any inappropriate tissue destruction.[5]

Natural killer cells (NK cells) are a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with abnormally low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) - a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells.[8] They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self." For many years, it was unclear how NK cell recognize tumor cells and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of "missing self". Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) that, in essence, put the brakes on NK cells. The NK-92 cell line does not express KIR and is developed for tumor therapy.[9][10][11][12]

Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant T cell receptors (TCRs), such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes to produce junctional diversity and develop a memory phenotype. However, the various subsets may also be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of V9/V2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial V1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.

The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to the non-specific defenses by their ability to increase vascular permeability and act as chemotactic agents for phagocytic cells. In addition, some of the products of the coagulation system are directly antimicrobial. For example, beta-lysine, a protein produced by platelets during coagulation, can cause lysis of many Gram-positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent.[4] Many acute-phase proteins of inflammation are involved in the coagulation system.

Also increased levels of lactoferrin and transferrin inhibit bacterial growth by binding iron, an essential nutrient for bacteria.[4]

The innate immune response to infectious and sterile injury is modulated by neural circuits that control cytokine production period. The inflammatory reflex is a prototypical neural circuit that controls cytokine production in spleen.[13] Action potentials transmitted via the vagus nerve to spleen mediate the release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that inhibits cytokine release by interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (CHRNA7) expressed on cytokine-producing cells.[14] The motor arc of the inflammatory reflex is termed the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway.

The parts of the innate immune system have different specificity for different pathogens.

Cells of the innate immune system, in effect, prevent free growth of bacteria within the body; however, many pathogens have evolved mechanisms allowing them to evade the innate immune system.[17][18]

Evasion strategies that circumvent the innate immune system include intracellular replication, such as in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in salmonella.[19]Bacteroides species are normally mutualistic bacteria, making up a substantial portion of the mammalian gastrointestinal flora.[20] Some species (B. fragilis, for example) are opportunistic pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity. These species evade the immune system through inhibition of phagocytosis by affecting the receptors that phagocytes use to engulf bacteria or by mimicking host cells so that the immune system does not recognize them as foreign. Staphylococcus aureus inhibits the ability of the phagocyte to respond to chemokine signals. Other organisms such as M. tuberculosis, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Bacillus anthracis utilize mechanisms that directly kill the phagocyte.

Bacteria and fungi may also form complex biofilms, providing protection from the cells and proteins of the immune system; recent studies indicate that such biofilms are present in many successful infections, including the chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.[21]

Type I interferons (IFN), secreted mainly by dendritic cells,[22] play the central role in antiviral host defense and creation of an effective antiviral state in a cell.[23] Viral components are recognized by different receptors: Toll-like receptors are located in the endosomal membrane and recognize double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), MDA5 and RIG-I receptors are located in the cytoplasm and recognize long dsRNA and phosphate-containing dsRNA respectively.[24] The viral recognition by MDA5 and RIG-I receptors in the cytoplasm induces a conformational change between the caspase-recruitment domain (CARD) and the CARD-containing adaptor MAVS. In parallel, the viral recognition by toll-like receptors in the endocytic compartments induces the activation of the adaptor protein TRIF. These two pathways converge in the recruitment and activation of the IKK/TBK-1 complex, inducing phosphorylation and homo- and hetero-dimerization of transcription factors IRF3 and IRF7. These molecules are translocated in the nucleus, where they induce IFN production with the presence of C-Jun (a particular transcription factor) and activating transcription factor 2. IFN then binds to the IFN receptors, inducing expression of hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes. This leads to production of proteins with antiviral properties, such as protein kinase R, which inhibits viral protein synthesis, or the 2,5-oligoadenylate synthetase family, which degrades viral RNA. These molecules establish an antiviral state in the cell.[23]

Some viruses are able to evade this immune system by producing molecules that interfere with the IFN production pathway. For example, the Influenza A virus produces NS1 protein, which can bind to single-stranded and double-stranded RNA, thus inhibiting type I IFN production. Influenza A virus also blocks protein kinase R activation and the establishment of the antiviral state.[25] The dengue virus also inhibits type I IFN production by blocking IRF-3 phosophorylation using NS2B3 protease complex.[26]

Bacteria (and perhaps other prokaryotic organisms), utilize a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from pathogens, such as bacteriophages. In this system, bacteria produce enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, that attack and destroy specific regions of the viral DNA of invading bacteriophages. Methylation of the host's own DNA marks it as "self" and prevents it from being attacked by endonucleases.[27] Restriction endonucleases and the restriction modification system exist exclusively in prokaryotes.

Invertebrates do not possess lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral immune system, and it is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates.[28] Nevertheless, invertebrates possess mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with microbial pathogens. Toll-like receptors are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body-cavity), including humans.[29] The complement system, as discussed above, is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps clear pathogens from an organism, and exists in most forms of life. Some invertebrates, including various insects, crabs, and worms utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system.[28]

Antimicrobial peptides are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found among all classes of life and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. Several species of insect produce antimicrobial peptides known as defensins and cecropins.

In invertebrates, pattern recognition proteins (PRPs) trigger proteolytic cascades that degrade proteins and control many of the mechanisms of the innate immune system of invertebratesincluding hemolymph coagulation and melanization. Proteolytic cascades are important components of the invertebrate immune system because they are turned on more rapidly than other innate immune reactions because they do not rely on gene changes. Proteolytic cascades have been found to function the same in both vertebrate and invertebrates, even though different proteins are used throughout the cascades.[30]

In the hemolymph, which makes up the fluid in the circulatory system of arthropods, a gel-like fluid surrounds pathogen invaders, similar to the way blood does in other animals. There are various different proteins and mechanisms that are involved in invertebrate clotting. In crustaceans, transglutaminase from blood cells and mobile plasma proteins make up the clotting system, where the transglutaminase polymerizes 210 kDa subunits of a plasma-clotting protein. On the other hand, in the horseshoe crab species clotting system, components of proteolytic cascades are stored as inactive forms in granules of hemocytes, which are released when foreign molecules, like lipopolysaccharides enter.[30]

Members of every class of pathogen that infect humans also infect plants. Although the exact pathogenic species vary with the infected species, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects can all cause plant disease. As with animals, plants attacked by insects or other pathogens use a set of complex metabolic responses that lead to the formation of defensive chemical compounds that fight infection or make the plant less attractive to insects and other herbivores.[31] (see: plant defense against herbivory).

Like invertebrates, plants neither generate antibody or T-cell responses nor possess mobile cells that detect and attack pathogens. In addition, in case of infection, parts of some plants are treated as disposable and replaceable, in ways that very few animals are able to do. Walling off or discarding a part of a plant helps stop spread of an infection.[31]

Most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals sent throughout a plant. Plants use pattern-recognition receptors to recognize conserved microbial signatures. This recognition triggers an immune response. The first plant receptors of conserved microbial signatures were identified in rice (XA21, 1995)[32][33] and in Arabidopsis (FLS2, 2000).[34] Plants also carry immune receptors that recognize highly variable pathogen effectors. These include the NBS-LRR class of proteins. When a part of a plant becomes infected with a microbial or viral pathogen, in case of an incompatible interaction triggered by specific elicitors, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response (HR), in which cells at the site of infection undergo rapid programmed cell death to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. HR has some similarities to animal pyroptosis, such as a requirement of caspase-1-like proteolytic activity of VPE, a cysteine protease that regulates cell disassembly during cell death.[35]

"Resistance" (R) proteins, encoded by R genes, are widely present in plants and detect pathogens. These proteins contain domains similar to the NOD Like Receptors and Toll-like receptors utilized in animal innate immunity. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response that renders the entire plant resistant to a broad spectrum of infectious agents.[36] SAR involves the production of chemical messengers, such as salicylic acid or jasmonic acid. Some of these travel through the plant and signal other cells to produce defensive compounds to protect uninfected parts, e.g., leaves.[37] Salicylic acid itself, although indispensable for expression of SAR, is not the translocated signal responsible for the systemic response. Recent evidence indicates a role for jasmonates in transmission of the signal to distal portions of the plant. RNA silencing mechanisms are also important in the plant systemic response, as they can block virus replication.[38] The jasmonic acid response, is stimulated in leaves damaged by insects, and involves the production of methyl jasmonate.[31]

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Innate immune system - Wikipedia

Vision problems can often accompany FMS. Fibromyalgia leads to changes in eyesight because it impacts the nervous system, which is the centre of sensitivity in the body.

When a person develops FMS, usually harmless objects can produce pain and sensitivity.

However symptoms are not homogenous and they can range from mild to severe.

FMS sufferers can for example develop sensitivity to stimuli such as fluorescent lights or to the light produced by a television set.

Contact lenses can cause pain and irritation, while wearing glasses can trigger mysofacial trigger points (TrPs) in the face and the neck. Pain can also be experienced in the ears, teeth and nose.

FMS can also lead to the production of a thick secretion, which subsequently impacts vision.

Night driving can be dangerous for those with FMS, as they often have trouble seeing the lights of oncoming cars.

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is another complication associated with Fibromyalgia. People with SAD need light to ward off depression, which is another common symptom of FMS.

Sicca syndrome, which leads to irritation dryness in the eyes as well as the mouth and nose, also affects vision and can make the wearing of contacts uncomfortable.

Other symptoms of FMS-related vision problems include postural dizziness, blurred or double vision, and vertigo. FMS can also result in impaired eye-hand coordination.

Beta-carotene (an anti-oxidant and precursor to vitamin A) can be very helpful in treating light sensitivity produced by FMS.

Eye exercises are also be helpful in determining whether your vision problems are a result of FMS. Put one hand on your head above your forehead; then attempt to look at your hand. Pain indicates that your TrPs are especially sensitive. Then, continuing to look up at your hand, look out from the upper corner of each eye separately.

Medications are also usually prescribed to treat eyesight complications; guaifenesin (which liquefies mucus) is a uricosuric drug th

at helps the treatment of FMS because it helps expel uric acid from the body.

For information on Chronic Mysofacial Pain Syndrome, click on the following link: Chronic Mysofacial Pain Syndrome.

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Sight $avers Family Eye Care is a full service eye and vision care provider and will take both eye emergencies as well as scheduled appointments. Patients throughout the Richmond area come to Sight $avers Family Eye Care because they know they will receive the personal attention and professional care that is our foundation. Dr. Steinhauser and our team are dedicated to keeping our patients comfortable and well-informed at all times. At Sight $avers Family Eye Care, we will explain every exam and procedure and answer all of our patient's questions. Additionally, at Sight $avers Family Eye Care, we offer vision financing options and will work with vision insurance providers to ensure good eye health and vision care for all of our patients.

Our one-on-one approach to optometry makes Dr. Steinhauser and the Sight $avers Family Eye Care staff the eye and vision care providers of choice in the Richmond area. Our Richmond optometrist offers the following services: complete eye exams, contact lenses, glasses, glaucoma testing, and pre- and post-operative care. For a complete list of services, visit our services page or call our Richmond office at 859-623-3911.

At Sight $avers Family Eye Care, we are dedicated to providing high-quality optometry services in a comfortable environment. Call us at 859-623-3911 or schedule an appointment today online.

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Smoking does not just increase your risk of heart disease, cancer, and other diseases, but can also damage your eyes. Although some changes to your eyes, such as dry eye, can be reversed, others c ...

Contrary to its name, color blindness does not mean that you cannot see any colors. You may see some colors just fine, but may be unable to distinguish between other colors.

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Half of all traumatic injuries to the face result in a loss of teeth and the surrounding tissue and bone that once supported them, which in turn makes these types of injuries very debilitating and difficult to treat. But in a new study published in the latest issue of STEM CELLS Translational Medicine, doctors at the University of Michigan School of Dentistry (UMSoD), Ann Arbor, have found a new way to regenerate a patients jawbone through the use of stem cells.

The procedure, done under local anesthesia, significantly speeds up the healing time relative to that of traditional bone grafting while allowing a patient to experience only a minimal amount of pain.

Part of a larger clinical trial, the findings highlighted in this issue focus on a 45-year-old woman missing seven front teeth plus 75 percent of the bone that once supported them, the result of a blow to her face five years earlier. She was left with severe functional and cosmetic deficiencies, since the missing bone made it impossible for her to have dental implant-based teeth replacements.

Darnell Kaigler, DDS, MS, PhD, an assistant professor of dentistry in the Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, was a lead member of the study team. "In small jawbone defects of the mouth created after teeth were extracted, we have placed gelatin sponges populated with stem cells into these areas to successfully grow bone."

Since the sponge material is soft, it does not work in larger areas. Thus, he and his team of researchers decided to try b-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP) as a scaffold upon which to place the cells instead. "For treating larger jawbone defects, it is important to have a scaffold material that is rigid and more stable to support bone growth," he explained.

They then placed the b-TCP scaffold, which had been seeded with a mixed population of bone marrow-derived autologous stem and progenitor cells 30 minutes prior to treatment at room temperature, into the defective area of the patients mouth during a procedure that requires only local anesthesia. Four months later, 80 percent of her missing jawbone had been regenerated, allowing them to proceed with placing oral implants that supported a dental prosthesis to once again give her a complete set of teeth.

Study team member Sharon Aronovich, DMD, FRCD(C), a clinical assistant professor of dentistry in the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the UMSoD, said, I am very grateful to all the patients and researchers that participated in this study. Thanks to everyone's efforts, we are one step closer to providing patients with a minimally invasive option for implant-based tooth replacement.

As the first report to describe a cell therapy for craniofacial trauma reconstruction, this research serves as the foundation for expanded studies using this approach, said Anthony Atala, M.D., Editor-in-Chief of STEM CELLS Translational Medicine and director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine.

The article, Optimized Cell Survival and Seeding Efficiency for Craniofacial Tissue Engineering Using Clinical Stem Cell Therapy, can be accessed at http://www.stemcellstm.com.

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Brain stem death is a clinical syndrome defined by the absence of reflexes with pathways through the brain stem - the stalk of the brain, which connects the spinal cord to the mid-brain, cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres - in a deeply comatose, ventilator-dependent patient. Identification of this state carries a very grave prognosis for survival; cessation of heartbeat often occurs within a few days although it may continue for weeks or even months if intensive support is maintained.[1]

In the United Kingdom, the formal diagnosis of brain stem death by the procedure laid down in the official Code of Practice[1] permits the diagnosis and certification of death on the premise that a person is dead when consciousness and the ability to breathe are permanently lost, regardless of continuing life in the body and parts of the brain, and that death of the brain stem alone is sufficient to produce this state.[2]

This concept of brain stem death is also accepted as grounds for pronouncing death for legal purposes in India[3] and Trinidad & Tobago.[4] Elsewhere in the world the concept upon which the certification of death on neurological grounds is based is that of permanent cessation of all function in all parts of the brain - whole brain death - with which the reductionist United Kingdom concept should not be confused. The United States' President's Council on Bioethics made it clear, in its White Paper of December 2008, that the United Kingdom concept and clinical criteria are not considered sufficient for the diagnosis of death in the United States of America.[5]

The United Kingdom (UK) criteria were first published by the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges (with advice from the Transplant Advisory Panel) in 1976, as prognostic guidelines.[6] They were drafted in response to a perceived need for guidance in the management of deeply comatose patients with severe brain damage who were being kept alive by mechanical ventilators but showing no signs of recovery. The Conference sought to establish diagnostic criteria of such rigour that on their fulfilment the mechanical ventilator can be switched off, in the secure knowledge that there is no possible chance of recovery. The published criteria negative responses to bedside tests of some reflexes with pathways through the brain stem and a specified challenge to the brain stem respiratory centre, with caveats about exclusion of endocrine influences, metabolic factors and drug effects were held to be sufficient to distinguish between those patients who retain the functional capacity to have a chance of even partial recovery and those where no such possibility exists. Recognition of that state required the withdrawal of fruitless further artificial support so that death might be allowed to occur, thus sparing relatives from the further emotional trauma of sterile hope.[6]

In 1979, the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges promulgated its conclusion that identification of the state defined by those same criteria then thought sufficient for a diagnosis of brain death means that the patient is dead [7]Death certification on those criteria has continued in the United Kingdom (where there is no statutory legal definition of death) since that time, particularly for organ transplantation purposes, although the conceptual basis for that use has changed.

In 1995, after a review by a Working Group of the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Conference of Medical Royal Colleges [2] formally adopted the more correct term for the syndrome, "brain stem death" - championed by Pallis in a set of 1982 articles in the British Medical Journal [8] and advanced a new definition of human death as the basis for equating this syndrome with the death of the person. The suggested new definition of death was the irreversible loss of the capacity for consciousness, combined with irreversible loss of the capacity to breathe. It was stated that the irreversible cessation of brain stem function will produce this state and therefore brain stem death is equivalent to the death of the individual.[2]

In the UK, the formal rules for the diagnosis of brain stem death have undergone only minor modifications since they were first published [6] in 1976. The most recent revision of the UK's Department of Health Code of Practice governing use of that procedure for the diagnosis of death [1] reaffirms the preconditions for its consideration. These are:

With these pre-conditions satisfied, the definitive criteria are:

Two doctors, of specified status and experience, are required to act together to diagnose death on these criteria and the tests must be repeated after a short period of time ... to allow return of the patients arterial blood gases and baseline parameters to the pre-test state. These criteria for the diagnosis of death are not applicable to infants below the age of two months.

With due regard for the cause of the coma, and the rapidity of its onset, testing for the purpose of diagnosing death on brain stem death grounds may be delayed beyond the stage where brain stem reflexes may be absent only temporarily because the cerebral blood flow is inadequate to support synaptic function although there is still sufficient blood flow to keep brain cells alive [9] and capable of recovery. There has recently been renewed interest in the possibility of neuronal protection during this phase by use of moderate hypothermia and by correction of the neuroendocrine abnormalities commonly seen in this early stage.[13]

Published studies of patients meeting the criteria for brain stem death or whole brain death the American standard which includes brain stem death diagnosed by similar means record that even if ventilation is continued after diagnosis, the heart stops beating within only a few hours or days.[14] However, there have been some very long-term survivals[15] and it is noteworthy that expert management can maintain the bodily functions of pregnant brain dead women for long enough to bring them to term.[16]

The management of patients pronounced dead on meeting the brain stem death criteria depends upon the reason for diagnosing death on that basis. If the intent is to take organs from the body for transplantation, the ventilator is reconnected and life-support measures are continued, perhaps intensified, with the addition of procedures designed to protect the wanted organs until they can be removed. Otherwise, the ventilator is left disconnected on confirmation of the lack of respiratory centre response.

The diagnostic criteria were originally published for the purpose of identifying a clinical state associated with a fatal prognosis (see above). The change of use, in the UK, to criteria for the diagnosis of death itself was protested from the first.[17][18] The initial basis for the change of use was the claim that satisfaction of the criteria sufficed for the diagnosis of the death of the brain as a whole, despite the persistence of demonstrable activity in parts of the brain.[19] In 1995, that claim was abandoned[7] and the diagnosis of death (acceptable for legal purposes in the UK in the context of organ procurement for transplantation) by the specified testing of brain stem functions was based on a new definition of death, viz. the permanent loss of the capacity for consciousness and spontaneous breathing. There are doubts that this concept is generally understood and accepted and that the specified testing is stringent enough to determine that state. It is, however, associated with substantial risk of exacerbating the brain damage and even causing the death of the apparently dying patient so tested (see "the apnoea test" above). This raises ethical problems which seem not to have been addressed.

It has been argued that sound scientific support is lacking for the claim that the specified purely bedside tests have the power to diagnose true and total death of the brain stem, the necessary condition for the assumption of permanent loss of the intrinsically untestable consciousness-arousal function of those elements of the reticular formation which lie within the brain stem (there are elements also within the higher brain).[19] Knowledge of this arousal system is based upon the findings from animal experiments[20][21][22] as illuminated by pathological studies in humans.[23] The current neurological consensus is that the arousal of consciousness depends upon reticular components which reside in the midbrain, diencephalon and pons.[24][25] It is said that the midbrain reticular formation may be viewed as a driving centre for the higher structures, loss of which produces a state in which the cortex appears, on the basis of electroencephalographic (EEG) studies, to be awaiting the command or ability to function. The role of diencephalic (higher brain) involvement is stated to be uncertain and we are reminded that the arousal system is best regarded as a physiological rather than a precise anatomical entity. There should, perhaps, also be a caveat about possible arousal mechanisms involving the first and second cranial nerves (serving sight and smell) which are not tested when diagnosing brain stem death but which were described in cats in 1935 and 1938.[20] In humans, light flashes have been observed to disturb the sleep-like EEG activity persisting after the loss of all brain stem reflexes and of spontaneous respiration.[26]

There is also concern about the permanence of consciousness loss, based on studies in cats, dogs and monkeys which recovered consciousness days or weeks after being rendered comatose by brain stem ablation and on human studies of brain stem stroke raising thoughts about the plasticity of the nervous system.[23] Other theories of consciousness place more stress on the thalamocortical system.[27] Perhaps the most objective statement to be made is that consciousness is not currently understood. That being so, proper caution must be exercised in accepting a diagnosis of its permanent loss before all cerebral blood flow has permanently ceased.

The ability to breathe spontaneously depends upon functioning elements in the medulla the respiratory centre. In the UK, establishing a neurological diagnosis of death involves challenging this centre with the strong stimulus offered by an unusually high concentration of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, but it is not challenged by the more powerful drive stimulus provided by anoxia although the effect of that ultimate stimulus is sometimes seen after final disconnection of the ventilator in the form of agonal gasps.

No testing of testable brain stem functions such as oesophageal and cardiovascular regulation is specified in the UK Code of Practice for the diagnosis of death on neurological grounds. There is published evidence[28][29][30] strongly suggestive of the persistence of brain stem blood pressure control in organ donors.

A small minority of medical practitioners working in the UK have argued that neither requirement of the UK Health Department's Code of Practice basis for the equation of brain stem death with death is satisfied by its current diagnostic protocol[1] and that in terms of its ability to diagnose de facto brain stem death it falls far short.

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Neural stem cells (NSCs) are self-renewing, multipotent cells that generate the neurons and glia of the nervous system of all animals during embryonic development. Some neural stem cells persist in the adult vertebrate brain and continue to produce neurons throughout life. Stem cells are characterized by their capacity to differentiate into multiple cell types.[1] They undergo symmetric or asymmetric cell division into two daughter cells. In symmetric cell division, both daughter cells are also stem cells. In asymmetric division, a stem cells produces one stem cell and one specialized cell.[2] NSCs primarily differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.[3]

In 1989, Sally Temple described multipotent, self-renewing progenitor and stem cells in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the mouse brain.[4] In 1992, Brent A. Reynolds and Samuel Weiss were the first to isolate neural progenitor and stem cells from the adult striatal tissue, including the SVZ one of the neurogenic areas of adult mice brain tissue.[5] In the same year the team of Constance Cepko and Evan Y. Snyder were the first to isolate multipotent cells from the mouse cerebellum and stably transfected them with the oncogene v-myc.[6] Interestingly, this molecule is one of the genes widely used now to reprogram adult non-stem cells into pluripotent stem cells. Since then, neural progenitor and stem cells have been isolated from various areas of the adult brain, including non-neurogenic areas, such as the spinal cord, and from various species including humans.[7][8]

There are two basic types of stem cell: adult stem cells, which are limited in their ability to differentiate, and embryonic stem cells (ESCs), which are pluripotent. ESCs are not limited to a particular cell fate; rather they have the capability to differentiate into any cell type.[1] ESCs are derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst with the potential to self-replicate.[3]

Neural stem cells are more specialized than ESCs because they generate only neural cells (neurons or glial cells).[9] During embryonic development of vertebrates, NSCs of the central nervous system (CNS) are called radial glial cells (RGCs), and reside in a transient zone called the ventricular zone (VZ).[10] Neurons are generated in large numbers by NSCs during a specific period of embryonic development through the process of neurogenesis, and continue to be generated in adult life in restricted regions of the adult brain.[11] Adult NSCs differentiate into new neurons within the adult subventricular zone (SVZ), a remnant of the embryonic germinal neuroepithelium, as well as the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.[11] NSCs can be extracted, cultured in a laboratory, and experimentally differentiated using specific culture conditions to replace lost or injured neurons or in many cases even glial cells.[3]

Adult NSCs were first isolated from mouse striatum in the early 1990s. They are capable of forming multipotent neurospheres when cultured in vitro. Neurospheres can produce self-renewing and proliferating specialized cells. These neurospheres can differentiate to form the specified neurons, glial cells, and oligodendrocytes.[3][11] In previous studies, cultured neurospheres have been transplanted into the brains of immunodeficient neonatal mice and have shown engraftment, proliferation, and neural differentiation.[11]

NSCs are stimulated to begin differentiation via exogenous cues from the microenvironment, or stem cell niche. This capability of the NSCs to replace lost or damaged neural cells is called neurogenesis.[3] Some neural cells are migrated from the SVZ along the rostral migratory stream which contains a marrow-like structure with ependymal cells and astrocytes when stimulated. The ependymal cells and astrocytes form glial tubes used by migrating neuroblasts. The astrocytes in the tubes provide support for the migrating cells as well as insulation from electrical and chemical signals released from surrounding cells. The astrocytes are the primary precursors for rapid cell amplification. The neuroblasts form tight chains and migrate towards the specified site of cell damage to repair or replace neural cells. One example is a neuroblast migrating towards the olfactory bulb to differentiate into periglomercular or granule neurons which have a radial migration pattern rather than a tangential one.[12]

On the other hand, the dentate gyrus neural stem cells produce excitatory granule neurons which are involved in learning and memory. One example of learning and memory is pattern separation, a cognitive process used to distinguish similar inputs.[3]

Neural stem cell proliferation declines as a consequence of aging.[13] Various approaches have been taken to counteract this age-related decline.[14] Because FOXO proteins regulate neural stem cell homeostasis,[15] FOXO proteins have been used to protect neural stem cells by inhibiting Wnt signaling.[16]

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) are mitogens that promote neural progenitor and stem cell growth in vitro, though other factors synthesized by the neural progenitor and stem cell populations are also required for optimal growth.[17] It is hypothesized that neurogenesis in the adult brain originates from NSCs. The origin and identity of NSCs in the adult brain remain to be defined.

The most widely accepted model of an adult NSC is a radial, astrocytes-like, GFAP-positive cell. Quiescent stem cells are Type B that are able to remain in the quiescent state due to the renewable tissue provided by the specific niches composed of blood vessels, astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and extracellular matrix present within the brain. These niches provide nourishment, structural support, and protection for the stem cells until they are activated by external stimuli. Once activated, the Type B cells develop into Type C cells, active proliferating intermediate cells, which then divide into neuroblasts consisting of Type A cells. The undifferentiated neuroblasts form chains that migrate and develop into mature neurons. In the olfactory bulb, they mature into GABAergic granule neurons, while in the hippocampus they mature into dentate granule cells.[18]

NSCs have an important role during development producing the enormous diversity of neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in the developing CNS. They also have important role in adult animals, for instance in learning and hippocampal plasticity in the adult mice in addition to supplying neurons to the olfactory bulb in mice.[11]

Notably the role of NSCs during diseases is now being elucidated by several research groups around the world. The responses during stroke, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease in animal models and humans is part of the current investigation. The results of this ongoing investigation may have future applications to treat human neurological diseases.[11]

Neural stem cells have been shown to engage in migration and replacement of dying neurons in classical experiments performed by Sanjay Magavi and Jeffrey Macklis.[19] Using a laser-induced damage of cortical layers, Magavi showed that SVZ neural progenitors expressing Doublecortin, a critical molecule for migration of neuroblasts, migrated long distances to the area of damage and differentiated into mature neurons expressing NeuN marker. In addition Masato Nakafuku's group from Japan showed for the first time the role of hippocampal stem cells during stroke in mice.[20] These results demonstrated that NSCs can engage in the adult brain as a result of injury. Furthermore, in 2004 Evan Y. Snyder's group showed that NSCs migrate to brain tumors in a directed fashion. Jaime Imitola, M.D and colleagues from Harvard demonstrated for the first time, a molecular mechanism for the responses of NSCs to injury. They showed that chemokines released during injury such as SDF-1a were responsible for the directed migration of human and mouse NSCs to areas of injury in mice.[21] Since then other molecules have been found to participate in the responses of NSCs to injury. All these results have been widely reproduced and expanded by other investigators joining the classical work of Richard L. Sidman in autoradiography to visualize neurogenesis during development, and neurogenesis in the adult by Joseph Altman in the 1960s, as evidence of the responses of adult NSCs activities and neurogenesis during homeostasis and injury.

The search for additional mechanisms that operate in the injury environment and how they influence the responses of NSCs during acute and chronic disease is matter of intense research.[22]

Cell death is a characteristic of acute CNS disorders as well as neurodegenerative disease. The loss of cells is amplified by the lack of regenerative abilities for cell replacement and repair in the CNS. One way to circumvent this is to use cell replacement therapy via regenerative NSCs. NSCs can be cultured in vitro as neurospheres. These neurospheres are composed of neural stem cells and progenitors (NSPCs) with growth factors such as EGF and FGF. The withdrawal of these growth factors activate differentiation into neurons, astrocytes, or oligodendrocytes which can be transplanted within the brain at the site of injury. The benefits of this therapeutic approach have been examined in Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. NSPCs induce neural repair via intrinsic properties of neuroprotection and immunomodulation. Some possible routes of transplantation include intracerebral transplantation and xenotransplantation.[23][24]

An alternative therapeutic approach to the transplantation of NSPCs is the pharmacological activation of endogenous NSPCs (eNSPCs). Activated eNSPCs produce neurotrophic factors,several treatments that activate a pathway that involves the phosphorylation of STAT3 on the serine residue and subsequent elevation of Hes3 expression (STAT3-Ser/Hes3 Signaling Axis) oppose neuronal death and disease progression in models of neurological disorder.[25][26]

Human midbrain-derived neural progenitor cells (hmNPCs) have the ability to differentiate down multiple neural cell lineages that lead to neurospheres as well as multiple neural phenotypes. The hmNPC can be used to develop a 3D in vitro model of the human CNS. There are two ways to culture the hmNPCs, the adherent monolayer and the neurosphere culture systems. The neurosphere culture system has previously been used to isolate and expand CNS stem cells by its ability to aggregate and proliferate hmNPCs under serum-free media conditions as well as with the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2). Initially, the hmNPCs were isolated and expanded before performing a 2D differentiation which was used to produce a single-cell suspension. This single-cell suspension helped achieve a homogenous 3D structure of uniform aggregate size. The 3D aggregation formed neurospheres which was used to form an in vitro 3D CNS model.[27]

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can deform the brain tissue, leading to necrosis primary damage which can then cascade and activate secondary damage such as excitotoxicity, inflammation, ischemia, and the breakdown of the blood-brain-barrier. Damage can escalate and eventually lead to apoptosis or cell death. Current treatments focus on preventing further damage by stabilizing bleeding, decreasing intracranial pressure and inflammation, and inhibiting pro-apoptoic cascades. In order to repair TBI damage, an upcoming therapeutic option involves the use of NSCs derived from the embryonic peri-ventricular region. Stem cells can be cultured in a favorable 3-dimensional, low cytotoxic environment, a hydrogel, that will increase NSC survival when injected into TBI patients. The intracerebrally injected, primed NSCs were seen to migrate to damaged tissue and differentiate into oligodendrocytes or neuronal cells that secreted neuroprotective factors.[28][29]

Galectin-1 is expressed in adult NSCs and has been shown to have a physiological role in the treatment of neurological disorders in animal models. There are two approaches to using NSCs as a therapeutic treatment: (1) stimulate intrinsic NSCs to promote proliferation in order to replace injured tissue, and (2) transplant NSCs into the damaged brain area in order to allow the NSCs to restore the tissue. Lentivirus vectors were used to infect human NSCs (hNSCs) with Galectin-1 which were later transplanted into the damaged tissue. The hGal-1-hNSCs induced better and faster brain recovery of the injured tissue as well as a reduction in motor and sensory deficits as compared to only hNSC transplantation.[12]

Neural stem cells are routinely studied in vitro using a method referred to as the Neurosphere Assay (or Neurosphere culture system), first developed by Reynolds and Weiss.[5] Neurospheres are intrinsically heterogeneous cellular entities almost entirely formed by a small fraction (1 to 5%) of slowly dividing neural stem cells and by their progeny, a population of fast-dividing nestin-positive progenitor cells.[5][30][31] The total number of these progenitors determines the size of a neurosphere and, as a result, disparities in sphere size within different neurosphere populations may reflect alterations in the proliferation, survival and/or differentiation status of their neural progenitors. Indeed, it has been reported that loss of 1-integrin in a neurosphere culture does not significantly affect the capacity of 1-integrin deficient stem cells to form new neurospheres, but it influences the size of the neurosphere: 1-integrin deficient neurospheres were overall smaller due to increased cell death and reduced proliferation.[32]

While the Neurosphere Assay has been the method of choice for isolation, expansion and even the enumeration of neural stem and progenitor cells, several recent publications have highlighted some of the limitations of the neurosphere culture system as a method for determining neural stem cell frequencies.[33] In collaboration with Reynolds, STEMCELL Technologies has developed a collagen-based assay, called the Neural Colony-Forming Cell (NCFC) Assay, for the quantification of neural stem cells. Importantly, this assay allows discrimination between neural stem and progenitor cells.[34]

The damaged CNS tissue has very limited regenerative and repair capacity so that loss of neurological function is often chronic and progressive. Cell replacement from stem cells is being actively pursued as a therapeutic option. In 2009, a research institute dedicated solely to translating neural stem research into therapies for patients was created outside of Albany, New York, The Neural Stem Cell Institute.

Intensity-modulated radiation to spare neural stem cells in brain tumors: a computational platform for evaluation of physical and biological dose metrics. Jaganathan A, Tiwari M, Phansekar R, Panta R, Huilgol N.

Read the original:
Neural stem cell - Wikipedia

Sessions/Tracks

Conference Series Ltd invites participants from all over the world to 5thInternational Conference onIntegrative Biology(Integrative Biology 2017) is scheduled to be held during July 19-21, 2017in London, UK,which aims to gather the most elegant societies and industries along with the renowned and honorable persons form top universities across the globe.

As name Integrative Biology reflects belief that the study of biological systems is best approached by incorporating many perspectives like Cell Biology,Molecular biology, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine,Stem Cell Biology, Genetic Engineering and rDNA Technology, Computational Biology & Bioinformatics, Systems Biology, Developmental Biology,Structural biology,Bio-Engineering, Genomics, Cancer Biology, Biophysics. We bring together a diversity of disciplines that complement one another to unravel the complexity of biology. The concept includesanatomy, physiology,cell biology,biochemistryandbiophysics, and covers animals, human and microorganisms. Our broad range of expertise includes: cell biologist, geneticists, physiologists, molecular biologist, computational biologist, systems biologists, structural biologist, bioinformaticians, biophysicists and biotechnologists.

Track 1: Integrative Biology

An Integrative Biology approach addresses the biological question(s) by integrating holistic (genome wide; omics-) approaches with in depth functional analysis and computation biology (modeling), thereby integrating wet and dry lab approaches. Integrative Biology 2017 offers a premier forum to share trans-disciplinary integrative thinking to unravel the underlying principal mechanisms and process in biology and medicine.

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Track-2: Cell Biology

Cell biologyis a branch of biology that studies cells their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division, death and cell function. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria andprotozoa, as well as the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans, plants, and sponges. The advancing live cell imaging encompasses its applications to Biochips for cell biology, Single-cell ros imaging and Experimental models and clinical transplantation in cell biology and indeed many more. Most recent researches are going on for cell biology on these topics: Cell Organelles: Function and Dysfunction, Cell Biology of Host-Pathogen Interactions,Cancer Cell Biology, Cell Biology of Metabolic Diseases,Cell Biology of Ageing, Cell Signaling and Intracellular Trafficking,Cell Death, Autophagy,Cell Stress, Cell Division and Cell Cycle.

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Track-3: Tissue Engineering

Tissueis a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ.Tissue engineeringis the use of a combination of cells for characterization of engineered tissues, engineering and materials methods to study the advanced technologies in tissue assembly for new insights intoregenerative tissue, and suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or replace biological functions. While it was once categorized as a sub-field ofbiomaterials, having grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a field in its own right.

Major universities as of University of California, University of Pennsylvania and, Leigh University has come up with the research ofTissue Biologyencouraging and attracting students round the globe for the same.

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Track-4: Stem Cell Biology

Stem cellsare cells originate in all multi-cellular organisms. They were isolated in mice in 1981 and in humans in 1998. In humans there are several types of stem cells, each with variable levels of potency. Stem cell treatments are a type ofcell therapythat introduces new cells into adult bodies for possible treatment ofcancer,diabetes, neurological disorders and other medical conditions. Stem cells have been used to repair tissue damaged by disease or age. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cellsectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm, but also maintain the normal turnover ofregenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues.

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Track-5: Developmental Biology

Developmental Biology session mainlyfocuses on mechanisms ofdevelopment, differentiation, andgrowthinanimals molecular, cellular, genetic and evolutionary levels. Areas of particular emphasis include transcriptional control mechanisms, embryonic patterning,cell-cell interactions, growth factors and signal transduction, and regulatory hierarchies in developing plants and animals. Research Areas Include:- Molecular geneticsof development, Control ofgene expression, Cell interactions and cell-matrix interactions, Mechanisms of differentiation, Growth factors and oncogenes,Regulation of stem cell populations, Evolution of developmental control, and Gametogenesis and fertilization.

AgainNational Science Foundationhas bought its focus on Developmental Biology Branch too for funding and encouraging research. TheWelcome Trusttoo supports the Four Year PhD Programme with its funding to encourage the growing research interest in the field.

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Track-6: Cancer Biology

Cancer biology encompasses the application of systems biology approaches to cancer research, in order to study the disease as a complex adaptive system with emerging properties at multiple biological scales. More explicitly, because cancer spans multiple biological, spatial and temporal scales, communication and feedback mechanisms across the scales create a highly complex dynamic system.

Cancer biologytherefore adopts a holistic view of cancer aimed at integrating its many biological scales, including genetics, signaling networks,epigenetics, cellular behavior, histology, (pre)clinical manifestations and epidemiology. Basic researchers and clinicians have progressively recognized the complexity of cancer and of its interaction with the micro- and macro-environment, since putting together the components to provide a cohesive view of the disease has been challenging and hampered progress. Most recent research are going onCancer Genetics,Carcinogenesis,DNA damage and repair, Apoptosis,angiogenesis, and metastasis, Tumor microenvironment, Molecular mechanisms of Cancer Pathogenesis ,Cancer stem cells, Discovery of tumor suppressor genes, Aberrant signaling pathways in tumor cells, Roles of ubiquitination pathways in cancer,Molecular cancer epidemiology, Cancer detection and therapy.

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Track-7: Molecular Biology

Molecular biologyconcerns the molecular basis of biological activity between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between the different types of DNA, RNA and proteins and theirbiosynthesis, and studies how these interactions are regulated. It has many applications like in gene finding, molecular mechanisms of diseases and its therapeutic approaches by cloning, expression and regulation of gene. Research area includes gene expression, epigenetics and chromatin structure and function,RNA processing, functions of non-coding RNAs, transcription. Nowadays, Most advanced researches are going on these topics: Molecular biology, DNA replication, repair and recombination,Transcription, RNA processing, Post-translational modification, proteomics, Mutation, Site-directed mutagenesis,Epigenetics,chromatin structure and function, Molecular mechanisms of diseases.

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Trcak-8: Structural Biology

Structural biologyseeks to provide a complete and coherent picture of biological phenomena at the molecular and atomic level. The goals of structural biology include developing a comprehensive understanding of the molecular shapes and forms embraced by biological macromolecules and extending this knowledge to understand how different molecular architectures are used to perform the chemical reactions that are central to life. Most recent topics related to structural biology are: Structural Biochemistry,Structure and Function Determination, Hybrid Approaches for Structure Prediction,Structural Biology In Cancer Research,Computational Approaches in Structural Biology,Strucutural Biology Databases.

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Track-9: Genetic Engineering and rDNA Technology

Genetic engineeringis a broad term referring to manipulation of an organisms nucleic acid. Organisms whose genes have been artificially altered for a desired affect is often called genetically modified organism (GMO).Recombinant DNA technology(rDNA) is technology that is used to cut a knownDNA sequencefrom one organism and introduce it into another organism thereby altering the genotype (hence the phenotype) of the recipient. The process of introducing the foreign gene into another organism (or vector) is also called cloning. Sometimes these two terms are used synonymously.

Basically, these techniques are used to achieve the following:

Study the arrangement, expression andregulation of genes, Modification of genes to obtain a changed protein product, Modification ofgene expressioneither to enhance or suppress a particular product, Making multiple copies of anucleic acid segmentartificially, Introduction of genes from organism to another, thus creating a transgenic organism, Creation of organism with desirable or altered characteristics.

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Track-10: Genomics

Genomics researchoften requires the development of new techniques utilizing Genomics and bioinformatics tools for target assessment, including both experimental protocols and data analysis algorithms, to enable a deeper understanding of complex biological systems. In this respect, the field is entering a new and exciting era; rapidly improving next-generationDNA sequencingtechnologies, Cloud computing, hadoop in genomics, now allow for the routine sequencing of entire genomes and Transcriptomes, or of virtually any targeted set of DNA or RNA molecules.

Genomic labs have the fastest growing market with nearly 250 universities concentrating on its research majorly to be named Whitetail Genetic Research Institute, Stanford University, National Human Genome Research Institute. Major companies concentrating on the research are Affymetrix, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Genentech etc.The scope and research areas of genomics includes genomics and bioinformatic tools for target assessment, structural,functional and comparitive genomics,genomics in marine monitoring,applications of genomics and bioinformatics, infectious disease modelling and analysis,oncogenomics,clinical genomics analysis,microbial genomics, plant genomics,medical genomics,epigenomics and DNA and RNA structure/functionstudies but are not limited to this only. The promise of genomics is huge. It could someday help us maximize personal health and discover the best medical care for any condition. It could help in the development of new therapies that alter the human genome and prevent (or even reverse) complications from the diseases we inherit.

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Track-11: Computational Biology & Bioinformatics

Computational Biologyis both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis by Bioinformatic tools for protein analysis that are repeatedly used, particularly in the fields of Structural andfunctional genomics,comparative genomicsand bioinformatics insystems biology. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidategenes and nucleotides(SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the Translational bioinformatics forgenomic medicine, Genomics in marine monitoring, andapplications of genomicsand bioinformatics.

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Track-12: Systems Biology

Systems biologyis the study ofTheoretical aspects of systems biologyof biological components, which may be molecules, cells, organisms or entire species. Living systems are dynamic and complex and their behavior may be hard to predict from the properties of individual parts.

It involves the computational (involvingInsilico modeling in systems biology,Biomarker identification in systems biology) and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. An emerging engineering approach applied to biomedical and biological scientific research, systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a holistic approach (holism instead of the more traditional reductionism) to biological and biomedical research involving the use of In vitro regulatory models in systems biologyusingOMICS tools. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in the biosciences in a variety of contexts.

ManyFunding Opportunitiesin this research has been bought up bySupport ISB,National Science Foundation,NIHand many CollaborativeFunding Opportunities.

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Track-13: Bio-Engineering

Biological engineering (Cellular and Molecular Bio-Engineering) or bioengineering (including biological systems engineering) is the application of concepts and methods of biology (and secondarily of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer science (In vitro testing in bioengineering) to solve real-world problems related to the life sciences or the application thereof, using engineering's own analytical and synthetic methodologies (defined asSynthetic bioengineering) and also its traditional sensitivity to the cost and practicality of the solution(s) arrived at. In this context, while traditional engineering applies physical and mathematical sciences to analyze, design and manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processes, biological engineering uses primarily the rapidly developing body of knowledge known as molecular biology to study and advance applications of living organisms and to create biotechnology likeCancer Bioengineeringused forOrgan bioengineering and regeneration.

Bio-engineering study remains the main interest of research with more than 340 schools focusing on it majorly beingJohns Hopkins University in Baltimore,Georgia Institute of Technology,University of California - San Diego,University of Washington,and Stanford University.

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Track-14: Biophysics

Biophysicsis that branch that applies the principles of physics and chemistry and the methods of mathematical analysis and computer modeling to understand how biological systems work. It seeks to explain biological function in terms of the molecular structures and properties of specific molecules. An important area of biophysical study is the detailed analysis of the structure of molecules in living systems. The recent research areas are biophysical approaches tocell biology, cellular movement andcell motility, computational and theoretical biophysics, molecular structure and behavior of lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, molecular structure & behavior ofmembrane proteins, role of biophysical techniques in analysis and prediction, biophysical mechanisms to explain specific biological processes and Nano biophysics. Most recent researchers are going on: Biophysical approaches to cell biology,Cellular Movement and Cell Motility,Computational and theoretical biophysics,Molecular Structure and Behavior of Lipids,Proteins and Nucleic Acids,Molecular Structure & Behavior of Membrane Proteins,Role of Biophysical Techniques in analysis and prediction,Biophysical Mechanisms to explain specific biological processes.

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6th International Conference onTissue Engineering & Regenerative Medicine, Baltimore, USA, Aug 20-22, 2017; 8th World Congress and Expo onCell & Stem Cell Research,Orlando, USA, March 20-22, 2017; 15thWorld Congress on Biotechnology and Biotech Industries Meet,Rome, Italy,March 20-21,2017; 2nd International Conference onGenetic Counselling and Genomic Medicine,Beijing, China, July 10-12, 2017; International Conference onClinical and Molecular Genetics, Las Vegas, USA, April 24-26, 2017.

The UK is one of the best places in the world for life sciences, on a par with premier life science destinations such as Boston, San Francisco, San Diego and Singapore. We have 4 of the top 10 universities in the world, 19 of the top 100 universities, one of the worlds 3 major financial centers, a stable of quality service providers, world class charitable supporters of the industry and a rich heritage of globally recognized medical research. There are nearly 5,633 life sciences companies in the UK employing an estimated 222,000 people and generates a combined estimated turnover of 60.7 billion. The industry sells into a global industry with current total market values of US$956bn for pharmaceutical and biologics, US$349bn for medical technology and US$50bn for the rapidly growing industrial biotechnology market. There are significant levels of health life sciences employment. This breaks down into: 107,000 employed in the biopharmaceutical sector and service and supply chain in 1,948 companies, generating 39.7 billion turnover; 115,000 employed in the medical technology sector and service and supply chain in 3,685 companies, generating 21 billion turnover. Two thirds of employment is outside of London and the South-East with significant concentrations in the East of England (15%, almost 34,000 people) and North-West (12%, almost 26,000 people). It shows that the UK is second only to the US in terms of life science Foreign Direct Investment projects along with the UKs relative strength in the academic base and clinical research landscape. Combined with the strength of the health life sciences supply chain, these factors are driving investment, growth and employment across the country.

Adjusting for these methodology changes overall jobs growth in the sector is estimated to be 2.9% and overall revenue growth is estimated to be 0.8%. The life science industry is global and 42% of employment is at UK owned companies and 49% of employment is at overseas-owned companies and 10% where the ownership location is unknown.

UK life science companies continue to tackle long-term health challenges such as cancer and antimicrobial resistance, and in addition to this many companies are using bioscience to address a range of issues including environmental challenges and chemical production. This predominantly healthcare manifesto also recognizes the growing importance of these new applications.

Why London??

Londons life sciences sector is a shining jewel and a cornerstone of the citys economy. With a rich history of achievements and medical firsts, the sector employs more than 21,000 in private sector industry, hospitals and research facilities including more than 2,000 researchers. The sector impact is in the manner: $720 Million Indirect benefits/ Economic Spinoffs; 780 number of principal researchers and 19 research institutes. The Major Biotech Companies in London are: Albert Browne Ltd, Parexel Informatics, Alcon Laboratories (UK) Ltd, Baxter Healthcare Ltd, Galderma Laboratories, Agilent Technologies, Abbott Laboratories, and Bayer Healthcare.

London's biotech universities and their spin out companies are Gene Expression Technologies, Photobiotic, Biogenic, Spirogen, Genexsyn, Nervation, Inpharmatica, Immune Regulation Ltd, Cerestem, and MedPharm, Immexis, and Antisoma plc.

London is the capital and most populous city of England, United Kingdom and the European Union. With an estimated 2015 population of 8.63 million within a land area of 1,572 km, London is a leading global city, with strengths in the research and development, arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, tourism, and transport all contributing to its prominence. It is one of the world's leading financial centers and has the fifth-or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world depending on measurement.

London is a world cultural capital. It is the world's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic. London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.

List of major societies in UK:

Royal Society of Biology Royal Society of Chemistry BBSRC (Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council) The Oxford University Society British Society for Cell Biology Royal Society of Edinburgh Royal Society of Medicine Biochemical Society Astrobiology Society of Britain British Medical Association British Society for the History of Medicine Genetics Society The Mammal Society Royal Institute of Public Health Society for Experimental Biology Zoological Society of London

List of universities and institutes in London:

The Francis Crick Institute, London University College London Imperial College London University of East London Kingston University London University of Westminster Birkbeck, University of London Goldsmiths, University of London King's College London Queen Mary University of London St George's, University of London

The major universities and institutes in UK are:

University of Leeds, University of Leicester, Leeds Trinity University, University of Glasgow, University of Exeter, University of Essex, University of Edinburgh, University of Dundee, Durham University, Cardiff University, University of Chester, University of Bristol, University of Birmingham, University of Bath, University of Cambridge, Anglia Ruskin University, Aston University, University of Bradford, University of East Anglia, University of Liverpool, Loughborough University, University of Nottingham, University of Reading, Queen's University Belfast, University of Sheffield, University of Southampton, University of Sussex, University of Warwick and University of York.

The major Biotech Companies in UK are:

GSK (Stevenage), Martindale Pharmaceuticals Ltd (Brentford), Nova Bio-pharma Holdings Limited, Oxoid Ltd, Omega Pharma Ltd, Quintiles Ltd (Guys Research Centre), Sauflon Pharmaceuticals Limited, Immuno Diagnostic Systems Ltd, Merck Serono Ltd, Quest Diagnostics Ltd, and Fujifilm Diosynth Biotech UK Ltd.

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Biology Conferences | Integrative Biology Conferences ...

Molecular genetics is the field of biology and genetics that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. The study of chromosomes and gene expression of an organism can give insight into heredity, genetic variation, and mutations. This is useful in the study of developmental biology and in understanding and treating genetic diseases.

Gene amplification is a procedure in which a certain gene or DNA sequence is replicated many times in a process called DNA replication.

The recombinant DNA molecules are then put into a bacterial strain (usually E. coli) which produces several identical copies by transformation. Transformation is the DNA uptake mechanism possessed by bacteria. However, only one recombinant DNA molecule can be cloned within a single bacteria cell, so each clone is of just one DNA insert.

In separation and detection DNA and mRNA are isolated from cells and then detected simply by the isolation. Cell cultures are also grown to provide a constant supply of cells ready for isolation.

First, laboratories use a normal cellular modification of mRNA that adds up to 200 adenine nucleotides to the end of the molecule (poly(A) tail). Once this has been added, the cell is ruptured and its cell contents are exposed to synthetic beads that are coated with thymine string nucleotides. Because Adenine and Thymine pair together in DNA, the poly(A) tail and synthetic beads are attracted to one another, and once they bind in this process the cell components can be washed away without removing the mRNA. Once the mRNA has been isolated, reverse transcriptase is employed to convert it to single-stranded DNA, from which a stable double-stranded DNA is produced using DNA polymerase. Complementary DNA (cDNA) is much more stable than mRNA and so, once the double-stranded DNA has been produced it represents the expressed DNA sequence scientists look for.[4]

This technique is used to identify which genes or genetic mutations produce a certain phenotype. A mutagen is very often used to accelerate this process. Once mutants have been isolated, the mutated genes can be molecularly identified.

Forward saturation genetics is a method for treating organisms with a mutagen, then screens the organism's offspring for particular phenotypes. This type of genetic screening is used to find and identify all the genes involved in a trait.[5]

A mutation in a gene can cause encoded proteins and the cells that rely on those proteins to malfunction. Conditions related to gene mutations are called genetic disorders. However, altering a patient's genes can sometimes be used to treat or cure a disease as well. Gene therapy can be used to replace a mutated gene with the correct copy of the gene, to inactivate or knockout the expression of a malfunctioning gene, or to introduce a foreign gene to the body to help fight disease.[6] Major diseases that can be treated with gene therapy include viral infections, cancers, and inherited disorders, including immune system disorders.[7]

Gene therapy delivers a copy of the missing, mutated, or desired gene via a modified virus or vector to the patient's target cells so that a functional form of the protein can then be produced and incorporated into the body.[8] These vectors are often siRNA.[9] Treatment can be either in vivo or ex vivo. The therapy has to be repeated several times for the infected patient to continually be relieved, as repeated cell division and cell death slowly randomizes the body's ratio of functional-to-mutant genes. Gene therapy is an appealing alternative to some drug-based approaches, because gene therapy repairs the underlying genetic defect using the patients own cells with minimal side effects.[10] Gene therapies are still in development and mostly used in research settings. All experiments and products are controlled by the U.S. FDA and the NIH. [11][12]

Classical gene therapies usually require efficient transfer of cloned genes into the disease cells so that the introduced genes are expressed at sufficiently high levels to change the patient's physiology. There are several different physicochemical and biological methods that can be used to transfer genes into human cells. The size of the DNA fragments that can be transferred is very limited, and often the transferred gene is not a conventional gene. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one cell to another that is not its offspring. Artificial horizontal gene transfer is a form of genetic engineering.[13]

The Human Genome Project is a molecular genetics project that began in the 1990s and was projected to take fifteen years to complete. However, because of technological advances the progress of the project was advanced and the project finished in 2003, taking only thirteen years. The project was started by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health in an effort to reach six set goals. These goals included:

The project was worked on by eighteen different countries including the United States, Japan, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The collaborative effort resulted in the discovery of the many benefits of molecular genetics. Discoveries such as molecular medicine, new energy sources and environmental applications, DNA forensics, and livestock breeding, are only a few of the benefits that molecular genetics can provide.[14]

NCBI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_molecular.html

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Molecular genetics - Wikipedia

Science has helped us understand how blue eyes or baldness as well as other inherited traits both harmless and harmful can run in a family. In the past few decades, largely due to the Human Genome Project and other scientific endeavors, knowledge has exploded in the field of human genetics.

Genetic services available in New Jersey include direct clinical care services as well as activities such as screening programs and laboratory services, educational activities and birth defects surveillance. The State of New Jersey partially funds a network of Genetic Centers [see the list at bottom of page] that provide testing, diagnosis, and ongoing management and comprehensive care of genetic conditions. Physicians specially trained in medical genetics, along with genetic counselors, nurses, social workers and other medical specialists provide comprehensive care to patients with genetic concerns.

Services may include some or all of the following: a review of your family and medical history; physical examination; laboratory testing; genetic counseling/education; and management or referral to other specialists experienced in treating or managing rare disorders. These services can provide information on certain disorders that you or your child may have inherited, how genetic conditions may be passed from one generation to another in a family, and what the risks are that certain conditions will affect you, your present or future pregnancies, or other members of your family.

Genetic counseling translates the science of genetics into practical information. Anyone who has unanswered questions about diseases or traits in their family should consider genetic counseling. People who might be especially interested are:

Resources:

American College of Medical Genetics (ACMG) http://www.acmg.net

Genetic Alliance http://www.geneticalliance.org/

Genetics Home Reference http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/

Human Genetics Association of New Jersey (HGANJ) http://www.hganj.org

National Newborn Screening & Genetic Resource Center (NNSGRC) http://genes-r-us.uthscsa.edu/

National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. (NORD) http://www.rarediseases.org/

National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) http://www.nsgc.org

Directory of Comprehensive Genetic Centers in New Jersey

*Children's Hospital of New Jersey Newark Beth Israel Medical Center 201 Lyons Avenue Newark, NJ 07112 Phone: (973) 926-4446

*Hackensack University Medical Center Genetics Service Don Imus Pediatric Center-Room 258 30 Prospect Avenue Hackensack, NJ 07601-1991 Phone (201) 996-5264 Outreach Clinics: Hoboken, Parsippany

*Saint Peter's University Hospital Institute for Genetic Medicine 254 Easton Avenue New Brunswick, NJ 08903 Phone: (732) 745-6659

*St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center Section of Genetics 703 Main Street Paterson, NJ 07503-2691 Phone: (973) 754-2727 Outreach Clinic: Fairfield

*UMDNJ/NJ Medical School Center for Human & Molecular Genetics 90 Bergen Street, Suite 5400 Newark, NJ 07103-2499 Phone: (973) 972-3300 Outreach Clinics: Pompton Plains, West New York

*Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center Division of Genetics 3 Cooper Plaza, Suite 309 Camden, NJ 08103 -1400 Phone: (856) 968-7255 Outreach Clinic: Childrens Regional Center at Voorhees

*Partially Funded By The New Jersey Department Of Health

Updated on 6/14/2013

Originally posted here:
NJDOH - New Born Screening & Genetic Services

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Arthritis Articles - Symptoms, Treatment, and More

What is rheumatoid arthritis (RA)?

Arthritis means inflammation of joints. RA is a common form of arthritis. (There are various other causes of arthritis and RA is just one cause.) About 1 in 100 people develop RA at some stage in their lives. It can happen to anyone. It is not an hereditary disease. It can develop at any age, but most commonly starts between the ages of 40 and 60. It is about three times more common in women than in men.

A joint is where two bones meet. Joints allow movement and flexibility of various parts of the body. The movement of the bones is caused by muscles which pull on tendons that are attached to bone. Cartilage covers the end of bones. Between the cartilage of two bones that form a joint there is a small amount of thick fluid called synovial fluid. This lubricates the joint, which allows smooth movement between the bones.

The synovium is the tissue that surrounds a joint. Synovial fluid is made by cells of the synovium. The outer part of the synovium is called the capsule. This is tough, gives the joint stability, and stops the bones from moving out of joint. Surrounding ligaments and muscles also help to give support and stability to joints.

RA is thought to be an autoimmune disease. The immune system normally makes antibodies (small proteins) to attack bacteria, viruses, and other germs. In people with autoimmune diseases, the immune system makes antibodies against tissues of the body. It is not clear why this happens. Some people have a tendency to develop autoimmune diseases. In such people, something might trigger the immune system to attack the body's own tissues. The trigger is not known.

In people with RA, antibodies are formed against the tissue that surrounds each joint (the synovium). This causes inflammation in and around affected joints. Over time, the inflammation can damage the joint, the cartilage, and parts of the bone near to the joint.

The most commonly affected joints are the small joints of the fingers, thumbs, wrists, feet, and ankles. However, any joint may be affected. The knees are quite commonly affected. Less commonly, the hips, shoulders, elbows, and neck are involved. It is often symmetrical. So, for example, if a joint is affected in a right arm, the same joint in the left arm is also often affected. In some people, just a few joints are affected. In others, many joints are involved.

The common main symptoms are pain and stiffness of affected joints. The stiffness is usually worse first thing in the morning, or after you have been resting. The inflammation causes swelling around the affected joints.

These are known as extra-articular symptoms of RA (meaning outside of the joints). A variety of symptoms may occur. The cause of some of these is not fully understood:

In most cases the symptoms develop gradually - over several weeks or so. Typically, you may first develop some stiffness in the hands, wrists, or soles of the feet in the morning, which eases by mid-day. This may come and go for a while, but then becomes a regular occurence. You may then notice some pain and swelling in the same joints. More joints such as the knees may then become affected.

In a small number of cases, less common patterns are seen. For example:

The severity of RA can vary greatly from person to person. It is usually a chronic relapsing condition. Chronic means that it is persistent. Relapsing means that at times the disease flares up (relapses), and at other times it settles down. There is usually no apparent reason why the inflammation may flare up for a while, and then settle down.

If untreated, most people with RA have this pattern of flare-ups followed by better spells. In some people, months or even years may go by between flare-ups. Some damage may be done to affected joints during each flare-up. The amount of disability which develops usually depends on how much damage is done over time to the affected joints. In a minority of cases the disease is constantly progressive, and severe joint damage and disability can develop quite quickly.

Inflammation can damage the cartilage which may become eroded or worn. The bone underneath may become thinned. The joint capsule and nearby ligaments and tissues around the joint may also become damaged. Joint damage develops gradually, but the speed at which damage develops varies from person to person. Over time, joint damage can lead to deformities. It may become difficult to use the affected joints. For example, the fingers and wrists are commonly affected, so a good grip and other tasks using the hands may become difficult.

Most people with RA develop some damage to affected joints. The amount of damage can range from mild to severe. At the outset of the disease it is difficult to predict for an individual how badly the disease will progress. However, modern treatments can often limit or even stop the progression of the disease and limit the joint damage (see below).

Hi! Terrified of taking Enbrel...how is anyone else coping with it?

When you first develop joint pains, it may at first be difficult for a doctor to say that you definitely have RA. This is because there are many other causes of joint pains. There is no single test which diagnoses early RA with 100% certainty. However, RA can usually be confidently diagnosed by a doctor based on the following combination of factors:

You may also be advised to have a range of other blood tests to rule out other causes of joint pains.

The risk of developing certain other conditions is higher than average in people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). These include:

It is not clear why people with RA have a higher-than-average chance of developing these conditions. One possible reason is that, on average, people with RA tend to have more risk factors for developing some of these conditions. For example:

Other complications which may develop include:

If your doctor suspects that you have rheumatoid arthritis (RA), you will usually be referred to a joint specialist (a rheumatologist). This is to confirm the diagnosis and to advise on treatment. It is very important to start treatment as early as possible after symptoms begin. This is because any joint damage done by the disease is permanent. Therefore, it is vital to start treatment as early as possible to minimise or even prevent any permanent joint damage.

There is no cure for RA. However, treatments can make a big difference to reduce symptoms and improve the outlook. The main aims of treatment are:

There are a number of medicines called disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). These are medicines that ease symptoms but also reduce the damaging effect of the disease on the joints. They work by blocking the way inflammation develops in the joints. They do this by blocking certain chemicals involved in the inflammation process. DMARDs includemethotrexate, sulfasalazine, sodium aurothiomalate, penicillamine, leflunomide, hydroxychloroquine, azathioprine, ciclosporin and mycophenolate mofetil. It is these medicines that have improved the outlook (prognosis) in recent years for many people with RA.

It is usual to start a DMARD as soon as possible after RA has been diagnosed. It is also common practice to use a combination of two or more DMARDs. This is commonly methotrexate plus at least one other DMARD. In general, the earlier you start DMARDs, the more effective they are likely to be.

DMARDs have no immediate effect on pains or inflammation. It can take several weeks, and sometimes several months, before you notice any effect. Therefore, it is important to keep taking DMARDs as prescribed, even if they do not seem to be working at first. Whilst on treatment, you are likely to have a blood test called a C-reactive protein (CRP) test every now and then. This test detects inflammation in the body. As the disease activity reduces, so should the blood level of CRP. The CRP test, in conjunction with assessing your symptoms, is a good way of monitoring disease activity and the effect of treatment in controlling the disease. If DMARDs work well, it is usual to take one or more DMARDs indefinitely. However, when a satisfactory level of disease control has been achieved, your doctor may advise a cautious reduction in doses, but not to a dose less than that required to continue to maintain disease control.

Each DMARD has different possible side-effects. If one does not suit, a different one may be fine. Some people try several DMARDs before one or more can be found to suit. Some side-effects can be serious. These are rare and include damage to the liver and blood-producing cells. Therefore, it is usual to have regular tests - usually blood tests - whilst you take DMARDs. The tests look for some possible side-effects before they become serious.

Biological medicines have been introduced more recently and also have a disease-modifying effect against RA. They are sometimes called cytokine modulators or monoclonal antibodies. Biological therapies include adalimumab, certolizumab pegol, etanercept, golimumab, infliximab, anakinra, abatacept, rituximab and tocilizumab.

They are called biological medicines because they mimic substances produced by the human body such as antibodies. Also, they are made by living organisms such as cloned human white blood cells. This is unlike most medicines that are made by chemical processes.

Biological medicines work in RA by blocking chemicals that are involved in inflammation. For example, some of these biological medicines block a chemical called TNF-alpha which plays an important role in causing inflammation in joints in RA.

One problem with biological medicines is that they need to be given by injection. They are also expensive. Recent guidelines state that two trials of six months of traditional DMARD monotherapy or combination therapy (at least one including methotrexate) should fail to control symptoms or prevent disease progression before one of these newer biological medicines may be recommended. Biological medicines may also be used in combination with methotrexate (a DMARD).

There seems to be an association between gum disease and the activity of RA. (Gum disease is very common.) One recent research trial looked at 40 people with RA who also had gum disease. The trial compared 20 people who had treatment for their gum disease with 20 people who did not. It found that the disease activity of RA seemed to decrease when gum disease was treated. The treatment for the gum disease was scaling/root planing and oral hygiene instructions. That is, basically, good dental care and oral hygiene such as tooth brushing and flossing.

Gum disease causes an ongoing inflammation in the gums. The theory is that this inflammation may in some way add to the immune mechanisms involved in the inflammation of RA. Further research is needed to confirm this association. But, in the meantime, it seems sensible to make sure your oral hygiene is good, as it may have a beneficial effect. See separate leaflet called Dental Plaque and Gum Disease for details.

DMARDs and biological medicines mentioned earlier control the activity of the disease and will ease symptoms when they take effect. However, whilst waiting for them to take effect, or if they do not work so well, you may need treatment to treat symptoms.

During a flare-up of inflammation, if you rest the affected joint(s) it helps to ease pain. Special wrist splints, footwear, gentle massage, or applying heat may also help. Medication is also helpful. Medicines which may be advised by your doctor to ease pain and stiffness include the following:

These are sometimes just called anti-inflammatories and are good at easing pain and stiffness, and also help to reduce inflammation. There are many types and brands. Each is slightly different to the others, and side-effects may vary between brands. To decide on the right brand to use, a doctor has to balance how powerful the effect is against possible side-effects and other factors. Usually one can be found to suit. However, it is not unusual to try two or more brands before finding one that suits you best.

The leaflet which comes with the tablets gives a full list of possible side-effects. The most common side-effect is stomach pain (dyspepsia). An uncommon but serious side-effect is bleeding from the stomach. Therefore, your doctor will usually prescribe another medicine to protect the stomach from these possible problems. Stop taking the tablets and see a doctor urgently if you:

After starting a DMARD (discussed earlier), many people take an anti-inflammatory tablet for several weeks until the DMARD starts to work. Once a DMARD is found to help, the dose of the anti-inflammatory tablet can be reduced or even stopped.

Paracetamol often helps. This does not have any anti-inflammatory action, but is useful for pain relief in addition to, or instead of, an anti-inflammatory tablet. Codeine is another stonger painkiller that is sometimes used.

Note: NSAIDs and painkillers ease the symptoms of RA. However, they do not alter the progression of the disease or prevent joint damage. You do not need to take them if symptoms settle with the use of disease-modifying medicines.

Steroids are good at reducing inflammation. It is common practice to advise a short course of steroids to damp down a flare-up of symptoms which has not been helped much by an NSAID. Also, when RA is first diagnosed, a short course of steroids is commonly used to control symptoms whilst waiting for DMARDs to take effect. Sometimes a steroid is used for a longer period of time in combination with a DMARD. An injection of steroid directly into a joint is sometimes used to treat a bad flare-up in one particular joint.

The main side-effects from steroids occur when they are used for more than a few weeks. The higher the dose, the more likely that side-effects become a problem. Serious side-effects that may occur if you take steroids for more than a few weeks, or if you have injections frequently, include:

As mentioned earlier, sometimes people with RA develop inflammation in other parts of the body such as the lungs, heart, blood vessels, or eyes. Also, anaemia may develop. Various treatments may be needed to treat these problems if they occur.

As mentioned earlier, if you have RA you have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (for example, angina, heart attack, and stroke), osteoporosis, and infections. Therefore, you should consider doing what you can to reduce the risk of these conditions by other means.

For example, if possible:

See separate leaflets called Preventing Cardiovascular Diseasesand Osteoporosis for more details.

To prevent certain infections, you should have:

Some people try complementary therapies such as special diets, bracelets, acupuncture, etc. There is little research evidence to say how effective such treatments are for RA. In particular, beware of paying a lot of money to people who make extravagant claims of success. For advice on the value of any treatment it is best to consult a doctor, or contact one of the groups below.

The prognosis regarding joint damage is perhaps better than many people imagine:

However, these figures are probably becoming out-of-date, as treatment has improved in recent years. Symptoms can often be well controlled with medication. Also, the outlook for a person who is diagnosed with RA these days is likely to be much better than it was a few years ago. This is because of the newer and better medicines - in particular the newer disease-modifying medicines. Follow-up studies of people being treated with the newer medicines should give a clearer idea of prognosis over the next few years.

Another factor to bear in mind is the increased risk of developing associated diseases such as cardiovascular disease (see above). Because of this, the average life expectancy of people with RA is a little reduced compared with the general population. This is why it is important to tackle any factors that you can modify such as smoking, diet, weight, etc.

Excerpt from:
Rheumatoid Arthritis. Symptoms of Arthritis and ... - Patient

Title Length Color Rating The Effects of Genetic Engineering on Agriculture - Genetic engineering is a way in which specific genes for an animal or plant can be extracted, and reproduced to form a new animal or plant. These new organisms will express the required trait for that gene. This practice is a very controversial topic within the scientific world. It is being implemented in various areas such as agriculture even though there are many alternatives that can be found for genetic engineered crops, such as organic materials and reducing leeching of the soil. The controversy regarding this practice occurs as it is believed to contribute both negative and positive implications and dangers, not only to oneself but the environment as a whole.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 5 Works Cited 1303 words (3.7 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering - Genetic Engineering is highly controversial since some people believe that genetic engineering is playing God. 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The possibilities of GE have prompted many ethicists to provide commentary on the topic, opening a dialogue between policy and experimentation in order to address topics such as genetically modified cro... [tags: Genetic Engineering] :: 7 Works Cited 2203 words (6.3 pages) Term Papers [preview] The Genetic Engineering Industry - Ever wish chocolate was healthy and could have the same nutrients and vitamins as fruit and vegetables. Food, one of three necessities of life, affects every living organism on Earth. Although some foods are disliked because of taste or health issues, recent discovery will open up new prosperities and growth in agriculture. Genetic engineering has the capability to make foods taste better, increase nutrient value, and even engineer plants to produce aids for deadly health issues. Every day the progress, understanding, and development of genetic engineering is digging deeper and with this knowledge virtually anything is possible.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 7 Works Cited 1806 words (5.2 pages) Term Papers [preview] Genetic Engineering in Humans - Author Chuck Klosterman said, The simple truth is that were all already cyborgs more or less. Our mouths are filled with silver. Our nearsighted pupils are repaired with surgical lasers. We jam diabetics full of delicious insulin. Almost 40 percent of Americans now have prosthetic limbs. We see to have no qualms about making post-birth improvements to our feeble selves. Why are we so uncomfortable with pre-birth improvement? Despite Klostermans accurate observation, there are reasons people are wearisome toward pre-birth enhancement.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] 859 words (2.5 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: The Impact of Human Manipulation - The scenes of a science fiction movie show presumably unrealistic scientific inventions. In today's world, time travel, cloning, and even light sabers are some of the countless topics that are seemingly unattainable and just ideas of the imagination. Saying that these events are feasible would be completely absurd. However, with recent scientific advancements, science fiction is now becoming more of a reality rather than a fantasy. Nevertheless, only about twenty-five years ago, genetic engineering fell into this same, idealistic category.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 6 Works Cited 1725 words (4.9 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: A Major Advancement for Mankind - As the Biochemist Isaac Asimov once said, "The advancement of Genetic Engineering makes it quite conceivable that we will design our own evolutionary progress. Scientists have always thought about new ways to progress through technology in our era, and in 1946, scientists discover that Genetic material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus. This was a major discovery that trickles down to the modern era of Genetics. Current scientists have pioneered new ways to decode human DNA, beating the $3 billion government-run Genome project to its goal.... [tags: Genetic Engineering] :: 10 Works Cited 973 words (2.8 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Is the Human Race Ready? - It is incredible to see how far genetic engineering has come. Humans, plants, and any living organism can now be manipulated. Scientists have found ways to change humans before they are even born. They can remove, add, or alter genes in the human genome. Making things possible that humans (even thirty years ago) would have never imagined. Richard Hayes claims in SuperSize Your Child. that genetic engineering needs to have limitations. That genetic engineering should be used for medical purposes, but not for genetic modification that could open the door to high-tech eugenic engineering (188).... [tags: Genetic Engineering] 1455 words (4.2 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] The Dark Side of Genetic Engineering - I never knew what genetic engineering was until I watched a special on the Discovery channel. The special showed scientists forming the first perfect embryo. What was very shocking was that the scientists kept asking each other what traits this embryo should compose of. To me that was disturbing and unethical to make a living human being based on what traits the parents would want them to have. This process goes against nature just as Francis Bacon said if we would control nature, we must first obey her (Fox 193).... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1104 words (3.2 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Historical Background Of Genetic Engineering - DNA is the material that gives us our personality, our looks, and our thought processes, good or bad, DNA controls all of this. DNA full name is Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is called that because it is missing one oxygen atom, and it is located in the nucleus. It is also in the form of an acid. DNA is made up of four subunits: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine. During the production of RNA, the messenger of DNA, Uracil is used instead of thymine. A small segment of this DNA is called a gene.... [tags: dna, Genetic Engineering, genes] :: 8 Works Cited 1513 words (4.3 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering Is Not Safe - Genetic engineering is the intended modification to an organisms genetic makeup. There have been no continuing studies on this topic or action so there is no telling whether or not it is harmless. Genetic engineering is not safe because scientists have no absolute knowledge about living systems. Given that, they are unable to do DNA surgery without creating mutations. Any interference on an organisms genetic makeup can cause permanent damage, hereditary defects, lack of nutritious food, or a spread of dangerous diseases.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 5 Works Cited 994 words (2.8 pages) Good Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: A Step Forward - Genetic engineering (GE) refers to the technique of modification or manipulation of genes (the biological material or chemical blue print that determines a living organisms traits) from one organism to another thus giving bacteria, plants, and animals, new features. The technique of selecting the best seed or the best traits of plants has been around for centuries. Humans have learned to graft (fuse) and hybridize (cross breed) plants, creating dwarfs and other useful forms since at least 1000 B.C.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 498 words (1.4 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Benefits of Genetic Engineering - Genetic Engineering is an idea that we can ponder on quiet days. The creation of altered DNA is an enticing aspect that can greatly influence the average human life. The research of genetic engineering is an ongoing exploration that may never end. I am a supporter of a genetic engineering. There are three basic beneficial basis of genetic engineering. Those are genetically altered crops, the creation of medicines, and the creation of organs so that many lives could be saved. Genetically altered crops are very beneficial to third world countries.... [tags: Genetic Engineering, DNA, ] :: 3 Works Cited 455 words (1.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Understanding Genetic Engineering - What if cancer could be cured by eating a pear. Or if a crop of wheat could be developed so that it never rotted. These may sound like science fiction but they're not as strange as they first seem to be, and may even be reality in the future. Fifteen years ago who would have thought that plants could be created to be immune to pesticides or that it would be possible to create a sheep that is exactly like its parent in every physical way. And yet both of these currently exist due to genetic engineering.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 13 Works Cited 1820 words (5.2 pages) Term Papers [preview] Genetic Engineering: Annotated Bibliography - Genetic Engineering. The World Book Encyclopedia. 2008 ed. This encyclopedia was extremely helpful. In not knowing all of the exact terms and basic knowledge of genetic engineering, it helped inform any reader of all this and more. The pages that had information on genetics and genetic engineering, had detailed definitions and descriptions for all the terms and ideas. Instead of focusing more towards the future of genetic engineering, it gave numerous facts about the technology and accomplishments of today.... [tags: Annotated Bibliographies, Genetic Engineering] 879 words (2.5 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Is Genetic Engineering Superior or Appalling? - Genetic engineering has changed a lot through the years. It is now possible not to only be able to genetically engineer just plants but also animals and people, plants especially. There are many different kind of plants that have been genetically modified. Genetic engineering is not all good but it is also not all bad. Genetic Engineering will come together the more you read. Plants are not the only thing getting bigger because of genetic engineering modifying the sizes. Animals are starting to become a bigger part of genetic engineering.... [tags: genetic plants,polar tree, genetic engineering] :: 7 Works Cited 1183 words (3.4 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: The Negative Impacts of Human Manipulation - The scenes of a science fiction movie show presumably unrealistic scientific inventions. In today's world, time travel and cloning are only two of the countless topics that are seemingly unattainable ideas of the imagination. Saying that these events are within reach would be completely absurd. However, with recent scientific advancements, science fiction is now becoming more of a reality rather than a fantasy. Nevertheless, only about twenty-five years ago, genetic engineering fell into this same, idealistic category.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 6 Works Cited 1675 words (4.8 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Major Advancement or Major Setback? - As the Biochemist Isaac Asimov once said, "The advancement of Genetic Engineering makes it quite conceivable that we will design our own evolutionary progress. Scientists have always thought about new ways to progress through technology in this era, and in 1946, scientists discovered that Genetic material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus. This was a major discovery that trickles down to the modern era of Genetics. Current scientists have pioneered new ways to decode human DNA, beating the $3 billion government-run Genome project to its goal.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 10 Works Cited 1335 words (3.8 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Human Genetic Engineering in Beneficial to Society - Even after thousands of years of evolution, the human race is not perfect: it is ravaged by disease and limited by nature. Yet, in recent times, researchers have begun to ascertain an advanced understanding of the underlying genetic code of humanity. The Human Genome Project, now complete, has provided a map of the intricacies in human DNA, allowing researchers to begin looking at the purpose of each gene. When combined with selective embryo implantation, which is used occasionally today to avoid hereditary diseases or to choose gender, genetic discoveries can become a sort of artificial evolution.... [tags: Pro Human Genetic Engineering] :: 8 Works Cited 1484 words (4.2 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - Just imagine the scene: and newlywed wife and husband are sitting down with a catalog, browsing joyously, pointing and awing at all the different options, fantasizing about all the possibilities that could become of their future. Is this a catalog for new furniture. No. This catalog for all features, phenotype and genotype, for the child they are planning to have. It is basically a database for parents to pick and choose all aspects of their children, from the sex of the child, to looks, and even to personality traits.... [tags: Genetic Engineering] 1131 words (3.2 pages) Good Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - Genes are, basically, the blueprints of our body which are passed down from generation to generation. Through the exploration of these inherited materials, scientists have ventured into the recent, and rather controversial, field of genetic engineering. It is described as the "artificial modification of the genetic code of a living organism", and involves the "manipulation and alteration of inborn characteristics" by humans (Lanza). Like many other issues, genetic engineering has sparked a heated debate.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 7 Works Cited 1882 words (5.4 pages) Term Papers [preview] Genetic Engineering: The End of Life as We Know It - Prior to 1982, genetic engineering was a relatively new branch of science. Today, scientists have a firm understanding of genetics and its importance to the living world. Genetic engineering allows us to influence the laws of nature in ways favorable to ourselves. Although promising in its achievements, it also has the potential for abuse. If engineering of this caliber were to be used for anything other than the advancement of the human race, the effects could be devastating. If precautions are not implemented on this science, parents might use it solely for eugenic purposes.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 773 words (2.2 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: The Next Technological Leap or a Disruption to the Natural Order of Our Planet? - While walking down the produce aisle at your local grocery store, have you ever questioned where the assortment of goods came from. When asked, perhaps your first thought would likely be from a local farm or orchard. But what if I were to tell you that those very goods could in fact be from a far less obvious third choice. What if someone told you that those pretty peaches on display were meticulously grown in a laboratory to bring forth predetermined traits. As futuristic as it may sound, this type of technology is no longer science fiction but has become a new reality.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 3 Works Cited 936 words (2.7 pages) Better Essays [preview] The Need for Policy Makers to Regulate Human Genetic Engineering - Human genetic engineering (HGE), a prevalent topic for scientists in research, is the process of manipulating genes in the human genome. Potentially, scientists can use the process of HGE to alter many biological and psychological human traits by gene modification. Currently, however, there is a large deficiency in information regarding HGE and its effects to the human body; creating a need for scientists to conduct more research and tests. Because of the many unknowns involving HGE it is necessary for policy makers to regulate HGE for the use by scientists.... [tags: Human Genetic Engineering] :: 2 Works Cited 1249 words (3.6 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering - Genetic engineering is a process in which scientists transfer genes from one species to another totally unrelated species. Usually this is done in order to get one organism to produce proteins, which it would not naturally produce. The genes taken from one species, which code for a particular protein, are put into cells of another species, using a vector. This can result in the cells producing the desired protein. It is used for producing proteins which can be used by humans, such as insulin for diabetics and is also used to make organisms better at surviving, for example genetically modifying a plant so that it can survive in acidic soil.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1054 words (3 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: The Controversy of Genetic Screening - The Controversy of Genetic Screening Craig Ventor of Celera Genomics, Rockville, MD, and Francis Collins of the National Institutes of Health and Wellcome Trust, London, England, simultaneously presented the sequence of human DNA in June of 2000, accomplishing the first major endeavor of the Human Genome Project (HGP) (Ridley 2). As scientists link human characteristics to genes-segments of DNA found on one or more of the 23 human chromosomes-prospects for genetic engineering will increase dramatically.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 4 Works Cited 1609 words (4.6 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] An Enhanced Genotype: Ethical Issues Involved with Genetic Engineering and their Impact as Revealed by Brave New World - An Enhanced Genotype: Ethical Issues Involved with Genetic Engineering and their Impact as Revealed by Brave New World Human society always attempts to better itself through the use of technology. Thus far, as a species, we have already achieved much: mastery of electronics, flight, and space travel. However, the field in which the most progress is currently being made is Biology, specifically Genetic Engineering. In Aldous Huxleys Brave New World, humanity has taken control of reproduction and biology in the same way that we have mastered chemistry and physics.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 6 Works Cited 2288 words (6.5 pages) Term Papers [preview] The Benefits of Genetic Engineering - Outline I. Thesis statement: The benefits of genetic engineering far outweigh its potential for misuse. II. Genetic Engineering A. Definition of Genetic Engineering. (#6) B. Who invented Genetic Engineering Gregor Mendel (Christopher Lampton #7) Thomas Hunt Morgan (Christopher Lampton #7) III. Benefits of Genetic Engineering A. Genetic Screening (Laurence E. Karp #4) B. Gene Therapy (Renato Dulbecco #6) C. Cloning D. Genetic Surgery (Christopher Lampton #7) E. Benefits in Agriculture (David Pimentel and Maurizio G.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Research Papers] :: 15 Works Cited 2500 words (7.1 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Benefits of Genetic Engineering - The selective Engineering of Genetics is invaluable to the health and happiness of humans. The importance of this issue has played second fiddle to the arguments, for and against genetic engineering. This essay will discuss the impact of genetic engineering on everyday life, for example genetic disorders, disease and how its impact on life in the world today. Although the opinions differ greatly, the benefits are substantial. Firstly, an increasing importance is being placed on the role of genetic engineering in the use of riding the incidence of genetic disorders.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 8 Works Cited 1176 words (3.4 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Benefits of Genetic Engineering - What exactly is genetic engineering. A simple definition of genetic engineering is the ability to isolate DNA pieces that contain selected genes of other species(Muench 238). Genetic engineering has been the upcoming field of biology since the early nineteen seventies. The prosperous field has benefits for both the medical and also the agricultural field. The diminishing of diseases, especially congenital disorders, reduction of pollution, eradication of world hunger, and increased longevity are just some of the possibilities which scientists foresee.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1146 words (3.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering Is Not Ethical - For many years, genetic engineering has been a topic in heated debates. Scientists propose that genetic engineering far outweighs its risks in benefits and should be further studied. Politicians argue that genetic engineering is largely unethical, harmful, and needs to have strong limitations. Although genetic engineering may reap benefits to modern civilization, it raises questions of human ethics, morality, and the limitations we need to set to protect humanity. Though there is harsh criticism from politicians, scientists continue to press forward saying that genetic engineering is of utmost importance to help and improve society.... [tags: Genetic Engineering is Immoral ] :: 5 Works Cited 1490 words (4.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Is Genetic Engineering Ethically Correct? - Over the past few years, genetic engineering has come a long way from its roots. What spawned as just a project for understanding has now become quite powerful. An article written by Michael Riess aided me in gaining some knowledge of the ethical dilemmas faced in the field of genetic engineering. Suppose you and your partner both discover that you are carriers of a genetic defect known as cystic fibrosis, and the two of you are expecting a baby. Genetic screening gives you the opportunity to use antenatal diagnosis to see if the baby will have cystic fibrosis or not (Reiss).... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 2 Works Cited 715 words (2 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Benefits of Genetic Engineering - The engineering of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is entirely new, yet genetics, as a field of science, has fascinated mankind for over 2,000 years. Man has always tried to bend nature around his will through selective breeding and other forms of practical genetics. Today, scientists have a greater understanding of genetics and its role in living organisms. Unfortunately, some people are trying to stop further studies in genetics, but the research being conducted today will serve to better mankind tomorrow.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1109 words (3.2 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Benefits of Genetic Engineering - Many people are envied or deprecated because of certain traits they are born with. Those that are envied are a select few, which in turn is why they are envied. When one child in a nursery has a toy, he is coveted by all the other children in the nursery. He will be idolized, and nearly every child will want to be his friend. However, there will also those that want the toy for themselves. The children that are jealous will do whatever they can to get the toy. The jealous children often resort to violence, and this is true in all aspects of life.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 975 words (2.8 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering and the Media - Genetic engineering and its related fields have stimulated an extremely controversial scientific debate about cloning for the last decade. With such a wide range of public opinions, it is hard to find any middle ground. Some feel that improving the genes of future children will help mankind make a major evolutionary step forward. Others agree that there could be dangerous unforeseen consequences in our genetic futures if we proceed with such endeavors. A third group warns that the expense of genetic enhancement will further separate the wealthy from the poor and create a super race. Popular magazines and the Internet are two of the major arenas in which this debate has been hotly cont... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 21 Works Cited 1731 words (4.9 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] The FDA Should Prohibit Genetic Engineering - Abstract: Recent developments in genomic research have enabled humans to manipulate the genes of living organisms with genetic engineering. Scientists have used this momentous technology in environmental and most recently, agricultural spheres. However, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not require that genetically altered foods be labeled as such. As a result, there is no protection against humans' ability to construct organisms that nature never intended to exist and to threaten nature's carefully balanced environment. Is it ethically responsible for the government to allow scientists to continue with these advances if they do not understand their consequences.... [tags: Genetic Engineering, Genetic Ethics] :: 10 Works Cited 2439 words (7 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering is Immoral - Genetic engineering gives the power to change many aspects of nature and could result in a lot of life-saving and preventative treatments. Today, scientists have a greater understanding of genetics and its role in living organisms. However, if this power is misused, the damage could be very great. Therefore, although genetic engineering is a field that should be explored, it needs to be strictly regulated and tested before being put into widespread use. Genetic engineering has also, opened the door way to biological solutions for world problems, as well as aid for body malfunctions.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 423 words (1.2 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering is Unethical - Just as the success of a corporate body in making money need not set the human condition ahead, neither does every scientific advance automatically make our lives more meaningful'; (Wald 45). These words were spoken by a Nobel Prize winning biologist and Harvard professor, George Wald, in a lecture given in 1976 on the Dangers of Genetic Engineering. This quotation states that incredible inventions, such as genetic engineering, are not always beneficial to society. Genetic engineering is altering the genetic material of cells and/or organisms in order to make them capable of making new substances or performing new functions'; (Wald 45).... [tags: Genetic Engineering is Immoral] :: 3 Works Cited 1141 words (3.3 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering is Unethical - Genetic engineering is a technology that has been created to alter DNA of different species to try and make them more improved. This essay will discuss the eugenics, the religious point of view about genetic engineering, genetically modified food and the genetic screening of embryos. In this essay it will be said wether genetic engineering is ethical or unethical. During 1924 Hitler said that everyone needs to be blond hair, blue eyes and white. This is known as Eugenics, thanks to a new science known as biotechnology in a few decades.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 492 words (1.4 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Playing God - Current technology has made what once seemed impossible, mapping the human genome, a reality within the next decade. What began over forty years ago with the discovery of the basic structure of DNA has evolved into the Human Genome Project. This is a fifteen-year, three billion dollar effort to sequence the entire human genetic code. The Project, under the direction of the U.S. National Institute of Health and the department of Energy is ahead of schedule in mapping what makes up an individual's genetic imprint.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 634 words (1.8 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Playing God - Regenerating extinct species, engineering babies that are born without vital body organs, this is what the use of genetic engineering brings to the world. In Greek myth, an chimera was a part lion, part goat, part dragon that lived in Lycia; in real life, its an animal customized with genes of different species. In reality, it could be a human-animal mixture that could result in horror for the scientific community. In myth the chimera was taken down by the warrior Bellerophon, the biotech version faces platoons of lawyers, bioethicists, and biologists (Hager).... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 8 Works Cited 1804 words (5.2 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering Research Paper - I. Introduction In the past three decades, scientists have learned how to mix and match characteristics among unrelated creatures by moving genes from one creature to another. This is called genetic engineering. Genetic Engineering is prematurely applied to food production. There are estimates that food output must increase by 60 percent over the next 25 years to keep up with demand. Thus, the result of scientist genetically altering plants for more consumption. The two most common methods for gene transfer are biological and electromechanical.... [tags: Science Biology Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 3 Works Cited 1347 words (3.8 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Human Genetic Engineering: Unnatural Selection - Introduction Technology has a significant influence across the world, as it has become a fast growing field. Modern biotechnology has been in the major forefront of this influence. From the discovery of DNA to the cloning of various animals, the study of genetic engineering has changed the way society views life. However, does genetic engineering have the capacity to influence the world to its best abilities. Products, which are genetically engineered, may cause severe negative effects on our society.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 3 Works Cited 1509 words (4.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - At the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland, Dr. Keith Campbell, director of embryology at PPL therapeutics in Roslin, and his colleague Dr. Ian Wilmut worked together on a project to clone a sheep, Dolly, from adult cells. On February 22, 1997, they finally succeeded. Dolly was the only lamb born from 277 fusions of oocytes with udder cells. Wilmut says there were so many failures because it is difficult to ensure that the empty oocytes and the donor cell are at the same stage of the cell division cycle.To clone Dolly, basically scientists took an unfertilized egg cell, removed the nucleus, replaced it with cells taken from the organism to be cloned, put it into an empty egg cell which... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1446 words (4.1 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Our Key to a Better World - What is genetic engineering one might ask and why is there so much moral controversy surrounding the topic. Genetic engineering as defined by Pete Moore, "is the name given to a wide variety of techniques that have one thing in common: they all allow the biologist to take a gene from one cell and insert it into another" (SS1). Such techniques included in genetic engineering (both "good" and "bad") are, genetic screening both during the fetal stage and later in life, gene therapy, sex selection in fetuses, and cloning.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 3 Works Cited 1117 words (3.2 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering and Cryonic Freezing: A Modern Frankenstein? - Genetic Engineering and Cryonic Freezing: A Modern Frankenstein. In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, a new being was artificially created using the parts of others. That topic thus examines the ethics of "playing God" and, though written in 1818, it is still a relevant issue today. Genetic engineering and cryogenic freezing are two current technologies related to the theme in the novel of science transcending the limits of what humans can and should do. Genetic engineering is widely used today.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essay Examples] :: 5 Works Cited 1507 words (4.3 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: The Tremendous Benefits Outweigh the Risks - Wouldn't it be great to improve health care, improve agriculture, and improve our quality of life. Genetic engineering is already accomplishing those things, and has the potential to accomplish much more. Genetic engineering, also referred to as biotechnology, is a fairly new science where the genes of an organism are modified to change the features of an organism or group of organisms. Genes are found in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of an organism, and each gene controls a specific trait of an organism.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essay Examples] :: 7 Works Cited 2253 words (6.4 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering Brings More Harm Than Good - Until the recent demise of the Soviet Union, we lived under the daily threat of nuclear holocaust extinguishing human life and the entire biosphere. Now it looks more likely that total destruction will be averted, and that widespread, but not universally fatal, damage will continue to occur from radiation accidents from power plants, aging nuclear submarines, and perhaps the limited use of tactical nuclear weapons by governments or terrorists. What has gone largely unnoticed is the unprecedented lethal threat of genetic engineering to life on the planet.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 1953 words (5.6 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering New Teeth - The article I read was about some scientists that were able to grow teeth inside rats bodies. This project was led by Pamela C. Yelick, a scientist for Forsyth Institute, and the project was conducted in Massachusetts. Joseph P. Vacanti, a tissue engineer at Massachusetts General Hospital, and Yelick had the idea for the experiment. Vacanti had previously worked with rats and he found that cells will naturally organize themselves into tissues and other complex structures if they are placed in the right environment.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] 736 words (2.1 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Ethics of Human Cloning and Genetic Engineering - INTRODUCTION When the Roslin Institute's first sheep cloning work was announced in March 1996 the papers were full of speculation about its long-term implications. Because of this discovery, the medias attention has focused mainly on discussion of the possibility, of cloning humans. In doing so, it has missed the much more immediate impact of this work on how we use animals. It's not certain this would really lead to flocks of cloned lambs in the fields of rural America, or clinically reproducible cuts of meat on the supermarket shelves.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 9 Works Cited 1845 words (5.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] We Must Educate Ourselves Before Passing Laws Restricting Cloning and Genetic Engineering - Biotechnology and genetic engineering involve the cloning of animal cells and organisms, but they also involve the alteration of an organism in an effort to make it more perfect, whether it is a crop, an animal, or even a human being. Obviously the cloning of humans or the cloning of human cells is much different than the cloning of genetically superior livestock or a better quality, higher yielding food crop, and people throughout the world realize this. The cloning of human beings has become one of the worst fears in our society today and for that reason many laws have been passed throughout European countries and North America in an effort to ban human cloning.... [tags: Genetic Engineering Essays] :: 4 Works Cited 1937 words (5.5 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] The Benefits of Human Genetic Engineering - Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is a revolutionary procedure that utilizes in vitro fertilization to implant a healthy egg cell into the mothers uterus after it is screened for mutations or other abnormalities. That way, only healthy eggs can develop to term and become beautiful, bouncing boys or girls. Designer babies have a bright future in the face of science because they are genetically engineered to be: disease free; viable donors for a sibling or parent; and with optional elimination of any severe cosmetic disorders that might develop,without risk to human diversity in the future.... [tags: Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, PGD] :: 6 Works Cited 1650 words (4.7 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering The Perfect Child - Modern society has an unquestionable preoccupation with perfection. Indulging in our vanities with things such as plastic surgery, veneers, botox, collagen, hair dye, and so on, have become a part of the socially acceptable norm. People do these things, and more, in an attempt to become their ideal selves. However, many are taking these practices to a completely new extreme, and are not stopping at just altering their own physical characteristics. With recent advances in medical science and technology, couples are now able to genetically modify embryos to create their ideal children.... [tags: Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis] :: 2 Works Cited 1022 words (2.9 pages) Strong Essays [preview] The Morals and Ethics of Genetic Engineering - Introduction Widely considered a revolutionary scientific breakthrough, genetic engineering has been on a path toward changing the world since its introduction in 1973 by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer (What). However, as genetic engineering slowly permeates the lives of humanity, the morals and ethics behind what are now common practices are entering public attention, and as a culture we are left to question whether the change brought on by such a discovery bring benefits and positive change, or damage and destruction.... [tags: genetics, theology, bioethics, DNA, GMOs] :: 13 Works Cited 3322 words (9.5 pages) Research Papers [preview] The Human Genetic Engineering Debate - Science is moving forward at an increasing rate every day. Just in the past decade, there have been numerous new discoveries in astronomy, chemistry, geology, paleontology, and many more scientific fields. However, some of the fastest growing subjects are in the field of biological sciences, more specifically genetics. Over the past twenty years a new genetic science known as genetic engineering has come to prominence. Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology, including a humans genome.... [tags: Genetics, Science Ethics] :: 9 Works Cited 1838 words (5.3 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering in the Modern World - Advances in biotechnology can be looked at two ways; both, positive and negative. People can also differ in what would qualify as a positive and negative way. Some may think that tinkering with Deoxyribonucleic acid also know as DNA, should not be allowed at all for any reason. Others may believe that manipulating human DNA can have many different beneficial outcomes. Biotechnology and genetic engineering can be looked at in two very different ways; can either be misused or unethical or it can be beneficial, ethical, and used for the better kind.... [tags: biotechnology, DNA, abortion] :: 1 Works Cited 966 words (2.8 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering and the Pursuit of Perfection - Research Paper Rough Draft In the year 2050, a young boy nervously rehearses what hes going to say as he approaches the cheerleader hes been too nervous to approach for the past month. But as he draws near, a jock pushes his books out of his hands. Hes teased, being the school wimp. They call him names like undesirable, god-child, and in-valid. Of course nobody cares for a less-than-perfect child whose genetic makeup was left to fate. With the introduction of genetic engineering into society, people like this young boy simply have no hope for competing against the likes of the genetically reimagined, perfect jock, people engineered to be unflawed.... [tags: Perfection, Body Image, Technology] :: 10 Works Cited 1898 words (5.4 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: Pros and Cons - Our world has finally begun its long-predicted descent into the depths of chaos. We may not yet realize it, but more and more problems plague the very state of our humanity with each passing day, such as cancer, famine, genetic disorders, and social elitism. It seems as though there is little hope, although a new solution has finally emerged, in the form of genetic engineering. It is apparent, however, that currently we cannot proceed, because while there are an abundant amount of advantages to genetic engineering, it is not a utopian process; criticism includes its practicality, theological implications, and changes in modern social structure.... [tags: Eugenics, Ethics] :: 5 Works Cited 1212 words (3.5 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Is Genetic Engineering Ethically Right? - Described at its most simple, ethics can be described as a socially constructed set of behaviours and beliefs deemed either acceptable or unacceptable by the vast majority of people. Ethical beliefs can vary somewhat from person to person and are ever changing and malleable (www.ncbi.nlm.gov/pubmed/15289521). There are three main ethical theories used by present day philosophers; these are Meta-ethics, Normative ethics and Applied ethics. Meta-ethics focuses on the nature of moral judgement and the foundation of ethical principles.... [tags: DNA, gene, diabetis] :: 10 Works Cited 1191 words (3.4 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering and the Public - Genetic Engineering and the Publics Uses of Genetic Engineering Opinions about genetic engineering range from disgust to awe. These opinions may also depend on what type of animal is being genetically manipulated, how such manipulation is being done, and for what reasons. In California, pet fish that have been genetically altered to fluoresce (glofish) have been restricted for sale.[1] Yet, for the rest of the United States these fish are found in several species, varieties and morphs. In California, Commissioner of Californias Fish and Game, Sam Schuchat, felt that there was a difference in genetic modification depending on the use of the product made.[2] The use of genetic engineering f... [tags: Stake Holders, Science, Dialogue] :: 6 Works Cited 877 words (2.5 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering: A Good Thing? - Today there are many definitions of Genetic Engineering, such as Genetic Engineering is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms (Kowalski) and Genetic Engineering refers to the modification or manipulation of a living organisms genes (Genetic). No matter the wording all definitions of genetic engineering refers to somehow changing an organisms genetic identity. Many people today support genetic engineering because it has many potential benefits for today's society; however, it also has many potential threats associated with it.... [tags: argumentative, persuasive, informative] :: 19 Works Cited 1928 words (5.5 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering and its Drawbacks - In the past few years, there have been numerous technological advances, one of them being genetic engineering. Scientists are experimenting with genes and animals to create everything from a Day-Glo pet fish to a pig whose liver could be used in a liver transplant for humans. Scientists argue that genetic engineering can be used to test medicinal products without putting humans at risk, to battle diseases and to make a body with a stronger immune system, amongst many other reasons, which they claim are to improve the outcome of the human race.... [tags: gene, transplant, animal testing] :: 9 Works Cited 911 words (2.6 pages) Better Essays [preview] The Perfect Child: Genetic Engineering - Have you ever wondered what it would be like if you could produce the perfect child. You picked their eye color, hair color, body type, even intelligence level. Instead of waiting nine months to see what your child looks like; you will already know because you chose their outer appearance. Improvements in science, has given way to the idea of allowing people to choose their offsprings physical attributes. This new concept is known as designer babies. A designer baby according to the oxford dictionary is a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering, combined with in vitro fertilization to ensure the presence or absence of particular genes or characteris... [tags: Designer Babies, Stem Cells] :: 5 Works Cited 899 words (2.6 pages) Better Essays [preview] Cons of Genetic Modification of Plants - In our everyday lives we have a substantial need for food. Everyone on planet earth needs food to survive from day to day, so engineers have begun mutating plants and crops to create a better source of nutrition to the population. Scientists are pushing the boundaries in order to create the most bountiful crops and, in turn, healthier people. Imagine what could happen if there were larger harvests, more succulent fruits and nutritious vegetables. Our imagination can run wild with the endless possibilities of genetic alteration of food.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 5 Works Cited 1011 words (2.9 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Germline Engineering and Reprogenetic Technologies - Modern technologies are constantly advancing in a multitude of ways to the degree that scientists have gained enough knowledgeable about the human genome to be able to find specific genes during the embryonic stage of reproduction. Scientists have already begun to use this knowledge to allow parents the ability to select the sex of their child and screen for genetic diseases via preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) with in vitro fertilization (IVF). Sex-selection has already created world-wide discussion regarding the ethics of such a situation.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 4 Works Cited 2055 words (5.9 pages) Term Papers [preview] Genetic Engineering and Experimentation - ... However, Ill be using it in the context that it is the experimentation of genetic engineering to see if its safe for the public. While you might think genetic engineering/experimentation is all fun and games while youre having your genes modified to make you smarter, or prettier, or something like that, there are consequences and dangers that can come with that modification. Then again, once perfected, genetic engineering could do a lot of good for humanity and society in general. Eliminate diseases, fix mental and psychological disabilities, maybe even (and semi-hopefully) keep people from being outright stupid.... [tags: Science, Controversy] :: 4 Works Cited 880 words (2.5 pages) Better Essays [preview] The Genetic Engineering Debate - In recent discussions of genetic engineering, a controversial issue has been whether genetic engineering is ethical or not. In The Person, the Soul, and Genetic Engineering, JC Polkinghorne discusses about the moral status of the very early embryo and therapeutic cloning. J. H. Brookes article Commentary on: The Person, the Soul, and Genetic Engineering comments and state opinions that counter Polkinghornes article. On the other hand John Harriss Goodbye Dolly? The Ethics of Human Cloning examines the possible uses and abuses of human cloning and draw out the principal ethical dimensions, both of what might be done and its meaning, and of public and official response (353).... [tags: Ethical Dilemma, Embryos With Dignity] :: 4 Works Cited 1403 words (4 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Ethics of Genetic Modification Technology - Modern society is on the verge of a biotechnological revolution: the foods we eat no longer serve simply to feed us, but to feed entire nations, to withstand natural disasters, and to deliver preventative vaccination. Much of this technology exists due to the rapid development of genetic modification, and todays genetically modified crops are only the tip of the proverbial iceberg. Says Robert T. Fraley, chief technology officer for biotech giant Monsanto, Its like computers in the 1960s. We are just at the beginning of the explosion of technology we are going to see." Biotechnologys discontents are numerous and furious, declaring the efforts of corporations of Monsanto to be dangerous... [tags: Genetic Engineering] 776 words (2.2 pages) Better Essays [preview] Xerosotmia and genetic engineering - All around the globe, predominantly in the United States and in Europe, there are technological advances in science that affects the way people live. In recent years, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have replaced peoples diet with genetically altered foods, which has affected human health. In a broad view, GMOs are created by splicing genes of different species that are combined through genetic engineering, consequently improving the resulting organism. Large corporations who choose to use Xerosotmia i i make larger profits with less time and effort involved (ABNE).... [tags: biology, genetically modified organisms] :: 4 Works Cited 1309 words (3.7 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] The Dangers of Genetic Engineering - Genetically manipulating genes to create certain traits in a human embryo is impossible at this point. Perhaps it will never happen. It is not inevitable in the long run, as some scientists pragmatically point out. (Embgen). It is, however, something that dominates modern day discussion concerning genetics and therefore must be addressed with care and consideration. There are many ways that gene manipulation could come about. Advances in spermatogenesis as well as the field of assisted reproductive technology, as seen in In Vitro Fertilization clinics, point toward methods that could house the systematic alteration of genetic information in reproductive cells. Transpl... [tags: Genetic Manipulation Essays] :: 5 Works Cited 1033 words (3 pages) Strong Essays [preview] Engineering the Perfect Human - For centuries, mankind has been fascinated by the idea of perfection. In recent decades, the issue has been raised regarding the perfect human and whether scientists are able to engineer and create this. Attempts have been made in the past to engineer this said perfect human, through eugenics and scientific racism, but until now, these attempts have been ineffective. Only now, with modern technology, are scientists able to make more significant progress in altering the human genome to the produce desired characteristics of perfection.... [tags: Genetic Engineering ] :: 21 Works Cited 1831 words (5.2 pages) Term Papers [preview] Can Genetic Modification Benefit Humanity? - Throughout the course of human history, new technological advancements have always created opposing views, and conflict between the different groups that hold them. Today, one of the greatest technological controversies is over the morals and practicality of genetically modifying crops and animals. Reasons for doing so vary from making them more nutritious to making plants more bountiful to allowing organisms to benefit humans in ways never before possible. Genetic engineering is a process in which genes within the DNA of one organism are removed and placed into the DNA of another, a reshuffling of genesfrom one species to another (Steinbrecher qtd.... [tags: Genetic Engineering] 1676 words (4.8 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - In the field of animal and human genetic engineering there is much more speculation, than fact, because very little has actually been tested in the real world. Firstly, theres a big question mark over safety of genetic engineering. In addition, genetic engineering can cause greater problems than that what we have today. Moreover, we can create a injustice world between Designer vs Non-designer children. Furthermore, genetic engineering is a type of murder because of the process of genetically modifying a baby.... [tags: designer babies, perfect baby] :: 5 Works Cited 911 words (2.6 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - Imagine a world where diseases can be found and prevented before they happen. This would be a future possibility if genetic engineering became more advanced. Genetic engineering is when parts of DNA are spliced into another piece of DNA which give new traits to the organism containing the DNA. Through continued research in the field of genetics, techniques such as mapping genomes and splicing DNA can be used beneficially to improve on existing organisms and their traits. To help understand genetic engineering, it is important to understand its history.... [tags: Cloning] :: 4 Works Cited 894 words (2.6 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - In the 21st century, times are changing. Everyday objects are becoming perfect with alterations to their system. These alterations are not only occurring on man-made objects, but also on natural organisms, such as newborn babies. Science has come a long way to being able to have the capability to alter pre-born babies to a parents desire. There are four arguments that can be considered when discussing this topic, including nature and three others. While many scientific minds are all for creating perfection in a child, many different groups of minds are arguing this act against nature should be abolished from scientists minds.... [tags: Ethics] 888 words (2.5 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - I, as a Christian, believe that the traits of a child are a blessing to a parent in one-way or another. Although I hold this true, I actually wouldnt mind being able to design my own baby. I mean, I could root out all of the bad traits, and add the ones I want. I would make my child a girl with olive skin, brown hair, bright green eyes, and to have the dancing feet of Fosse, the facial expressions of Liz Taylor, and the vocal chords of Lea Michelle. I want her to be a star of the screen or stage.... [tags: controversy, genes, physical traits, flaws] :: 3 Works Cited 890 words (2.5 pages) Better Essays [preview] Genetic Engineering - Moore's law, the statement that technologies will double every two years is a very thought-provoking inception for technologist and scientist (Moore's Law par.1). Numerous people are thrilled about this commandment while others are petrified. Why an individual might be troubled by technology one might inquire. Well there are many arguments that claim that technology is contrary to itself, nature, and humans. The unpretentious fact is technology is cohesive within the humanoid existence and will linger as time travels on.... [tags: genetically modified foods] :: 13 Works Cited 1461 words (4.2 pages) Powerful Essays [preview] Human Genetic Engineering: Dreams and Nightmares - Technological breakthroughs and advancements have occurred so rapidly since the dawn of the information age, that one often overlooks the great power humanity holds over the building blocks of life itself. While our understanding and mapping of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences has been slow coming since Friedrich Mieschers isolation of the double-helix shaped molecule, efforts in recent decades to map the human genome have opened many doors to the potential manipulation of lifes basic elements.... [tags: human genome, human genetics, cloning] :: 7 Works Cited 1162 words (3.3 pages) Strong Essays [preview]

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Biotechnology Portal

Welcome to the Biotechnology portal. Biotechnology is a technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.

Of the many different definitions available, the one declared by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity is one of the broadest:

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Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of an original. A clone in the biological sense, therefore, is a single cell (like bacteria, lymphocytes etc.) or multi-cellular organism that is genetically identical to another living organism. Sometimes this can refer to "natural" clones made either when an organism reproduces asexually or when two genetically identical individuals are produced by accident (as with identical twins), but in common parlance the clone is an identical copy by some conscious design. Also see clone (genetics). The term clone is derived from , the Greek word for "twig". In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o". Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively.

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Portal:Biotechnology - Wikipedia

Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of nanotechnology and biology.[1] Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.

This discipline helps to indicate the merger of biological research with various fields of nanotechnology. Concepts that are enhanced through nanobiology include: nanodevices (such as biological machines), nanoparticles, and nanoscale phenomena that occurs within the discipline of nanotechnology. This technical approach to biology allows scientists to imagine and create systems that can be used for biological research. Biologically inspired nanotechnology uses biological systems as the inspirations for technologies not yet created.[2] However, as with nanotechnology and biotechnology, bionanotechnology does have many potential ethical issues associated with it.

The most important objectives that are frequently found in nanobiology involve applying nanotools to relevant medical/biological problems and refining these applications. Developing new tools, such as peptoid nanosheets, for medical and biological purposes is another primary objective in nanotechnology. New nanotools are often made by refining the applications of the nanotools that are already being used. The imaging of native biomolecules, biological membranes, and tissues is also a major topic for the nanobiology researchers. Other topics concerning nanobiology include the use of cantilever array sensors and the application of nanophotonics for manipulating molecular processes in living cells.[3]

Recently, the use of microorganisms to synthesize functional nanoparticles has been of great interest. Microorganisms can change the oxidation state of metals. These microbial processes have opened up new opportunities for us to explore novel applications, for example, the biosynthesis of metal nanomaterials. In contrast to chemical and physical methods, microbial processes for synthesizing nanomaterials can be achieved in aqueous phase under gentle and environmentally benign conditions. This approach has become an attractive focus in current green bionanotechnology research towards sustainable development.[4]

The terms are often used interchangeably. When a distinction is intended, though, it is based on whether the focus is on applying biological ideas or on studying biology with nanotechnology. Bionanotechnology generally refers to the study of how the goals of nanotechnology can be guided by studying how biological "machines" work and adapting these biological motifs into improving existing nanotechnologies or creating new ones.[5][6] Nanobiotechnology, on the other hand, refers to the ways that nanotechnology is used to create devices to study biological systems.[7]

In other words, nanobiotechnology is essentially miniaturized biotechnology, whereas bionanotechnology is a specific application of nanotechnology. For example, DNA nanotechnology or cellular engineering would be classified as bionanotechnology because they involve working with biomolecules on the nanoscale. Conversely, many new medical technologies involving nanoparticles as delivery systems or as sensors would be examples of nanobiotechnology since they involve using nanotechnology to advance the goals of biology.

The definitions enumerated above will be utilized whenever a distinction between nanobio and bionano is made in this article. However, given the overlapping usage of the terms in modern parlance, individual technologies may need to be evaluated to determine which term is more fitting. As such, they are best discussed in parallel.

Most of the scientific concepts in bionanotechnology are derived from other fields. Biochemical principles that are used to understand the material properties of biological systems are central in bionanotechnology because those same principles are to be used to create new technologies. Material properties and applications studied in bionanoscience include mechanical properties(e.g. deformation, adhesion, failure), electrical/electronic (e.g. electromechanical stimulation, capacitors, energy storage/batteries), optical (e.g. absorption, luminescence, photochemistry), thermal (e.g. thermomutability, thermal management), biological (e.g. how cells interact with nanomaterials, molecular flaws/defects, biosensing, biological mechanisms s.a. mechanosensing), nanoscience of disease (e.g. genetic disease, cancer, organ/tissue failure), as well as computing (e.g. DNA computing)and agriculture(target delivery of pesticides, hormones and fertilizers.[8] The impact of bionanoscience, achieved through structural and mechanistic analyses of biological processes at nanoscale, is their translation into synthetic and technological applications through nanotechnology.

Nano-biotechnology takes most of its fundamentals from nanotechnology. Most of the devices designed for nano-biotechnological use are directly based on other existing nanotechnologies. Nano-biotechnology is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated with biosensors, particularly where photonics, chemistry, biology, biophysics, nano-medicine, and engineering converge. Measurement in biology using wave guide techniques, such as dual polarization interferometry, are another example.

Applications of bionanotechnology are extremely widespread. Insofar as the distinction holds, nanobiotechnology is much more commonplace in that it simply provides more tools for the study of biology. Bionanotechnology, on the other hand, promises to recreate biological mechanisms and pathways in a form that is useful in other ways.

Nanomedicine is a field of medical science whose applications are increasing more and more thanks to nanorobots and biological machines, which constitute a very useful tool to develop this area of knowledge. In the past years, researchers have done many improvements in the different devices and systems required to develop nanorobots. This supposes a new way of treating and dealing with diseases such as cancer; thanks to nanorobots, side effects of chemotherapy have been controlled, reduced and even eliminated, so some years from now, cancer patients will be offered an alternative to treat this disease instead of chemotherapy, which causes secondary effects such as hair loss, fatigue or nausea killing not only cancerous cells but also the healthy ones. At a clinical level, cancer treatment with nanomedicine will consist on the supply of nanorobots to the patient through an injection that will seek for cancerous cells leaving untouched the healthy ones. Patients that will be treated through nanomedicine will not notice the presence of this nanomachines inside them; the only thing that is going to be noticeable is the progressive improvement of their health.[9]

Nanobiotechnology (sometimes referred to as nanobiology) is best described as helping modern medicine progress from treating symptoms to generating cures and regenerating biological tissues. Three American patients have received whole cultured bladders with the help of doctors who use nanobiology techniques in their practice. Also, it has been demonstrated in animal studies that a uterus can be grown outside the body and then placed in the body in order to produce a baby. Stem cell treatments have been used to fix diseases that are found in the human heart and are in clinical trials in the United States. There is also funding for research into allowing people to have new limbs without having to resort to prosthesis. Artificial proteins might also become available to manufacture without the need for harsh chemicals and expensive machines. It has even been surmised that by the year 2055, computers may be made out of biochemicals and organic salts.[10]

Another example of current nanobiotechnological research involves nanospheres coated with fluorescent polymers. Researchers are seeking to design polymers whose fluorescence is quenched when they encounter specific molecules. Different polymers would detect different metabolites. The polymer-coated spheres could become part of new biological assays, and the technology might someday lead to particles which could be introduced into the human body to track down metabolites associated with tumors and other health problems. Another example, from a different perspective, would be evaluation and therapy at the nanoscopic level, i.e. the treatment of Nanobacteria (25-200nm sized) as is done by NanoBiotech Pharma.

While nanobiology is in its infancy, there are a lot of promising methods that will rely on nanobiology in the future. Biological systems are inherently nano in scale; nanoscience must merge with biology in order to deliver biomacromolecules and molecular machines that are similar to nature. Controlling and mimicking the devices and processes that are constructed from molecules is a tremendous challenge to face the converging disciplines of nanotechnology.[11] All living things, including humans, can be considered to be nanofoundries. Natural evolution has optimized the "natural" form of nanobiology over millions of years. In the 21st century, humans have developed the technology to artificially tap into nanobiology. This process is best described as "organic merging with synthetic." Colonies of live neurons can live together on a biochip device; according to research from Dr. Gunther Gross at the University of North Texas. Self-assembling nanotubes have the ability to be used as a structural system. They would be composed together with rhodopsins; which would facilitate the optical computing process and help with the storage of biological materials. DNA (as the software for all living things) can be used as a structural proteomic system - a logical component for molecular computing. Ned Seeman - a researcher at New York University - along with other researchers are currently researching concepts that are similar to each other.[12]

DNA nanotechnology is one important example of bionanotechnology.[13] The utilization of the inherent properties of nucleic acids like DNA to create useful materials is a promising area of modern research. Another important area of research involves taking advantage of membrane properties to generate synthetic membranes. Proteins that self-assemble to generate functional materials could be used as a novel approach for the large-scale production of programmable nanomaterials. One example is the development of amyloids found in bacterial biofilms as engineered nanomaterials that can be programmed genetically to have different properties.[14]Protein folding studies provide a third important avenue of research, but one that has been largely inhibited by our inability to predict protein folding with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. Given the myriad uses that biological systems have for proteins, though, research into understanding protein folding is of high importance and could prove fruitful for bionanotechnology in the future.

Lipid nanotechnology is another major area of research in bionanotechnology, where physico-chemical properties of lipids such as their antifouling and self-assembly is exploited to build nanodevices with applications in medicine and engineering.[15]

Meanwhile, nanotechnology application to biotechnology will also leave no field untouched by its groundbreaking scientific innovations for human wellness; the agricultural industry is no exception. Basically, nanomaterials are distinguished depending on the origin: natural, incidental and engineered nanoparticles. Among these, engineered nanoparticles have received wide attention in all fields of science, including medical, materials and agriculture technology with significant socio-economical growth. In the agriculture industry, engineered nanoparticles have been serving as nano carrier, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target particular plant parts to release their content.[16] Previously nanocapsules containing herbicides have been reported to effectively penetrate through cuticles and tissues, allowing the slow and constant release of the active substances. Likewise, other literature describes that nano-encapsulated slow release of fertilizers has also become a trend to save fertilizer consumption and to minimize environmental pollution through precision farming. These are only a few examples from numerous research works which might open up exciting opportunities for nanobiotechnology application in agriculture. Also, application of this kind of engineered nanoparticles to plants should be considered the level of amicability before it is employed in agriculture practices. Based on a thorough literature survey, it was understood that there is only limited authentic information available to explain the biological consequence of engineered nanoparticles on treated plants. Certain reports underline the phytotoxicity of various origin of engineered nanoparticles to the plant caused by the subject of concentrations and sizes . At the same time, however, an equal number of studies were reported with a positive outcome of nanoparticles, which facilitate growth promoting nature to treat plant.[17] In particular, compared to other nanoparticles, silver and gold nanoparticles based applications elicited beneficial results on various plant species with less and/or no toxicity.[18][19] Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) treated leaves of Asparagus showed the increased content of ascorbate and chlorophyll. Similarly, AgNPs-treated common bean and corn has increased shoot and root length, leaf surface area, chlorophyll, carbohydrate and protein contents reported earlier.[20] The gold nanoparticle has been used to induce growth and seed yield in Brassica juncea.[21]

This field relies on a variety of research methods, including experimental tools (e.g. imaging, characterization via AFM/optical tweezers etc.), x-ray diffraction based tools, synthesis via self-assembly, characterization of self-assembly (using e.g. MP-SPR, DPI, recombinant DNA methods, etc.), theory (e.g. statistical mechanics, nanomechanics, etc.), as well as computational approaches (bottom-up multi-scale simulation, supercomputing).

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