StemCell Therapy

The Division of Genetics at Advocate Medical Group offers a team of genetic specialists to help individuals and families navigate the complex arena of genetics and genomics. We are committed to the diagnosis, management, and treatment of patients with genetic disorders.

Our specially trained clinical geneticists and genetic counselors provide a full range of services including:

We guide families facing hereditary and genetic disorders through complicated genetic issues in an easy-to-understand manner and provide educational resources helpful to your understanding of a genetic disorder. Our specialists can also help you identify support groups and social services, and coordinate and refer you to appropriate specialty providers based on your diagnosis.

The Division of Genetics offers comprehensive care that extends beyond genetic counseling and diagnosis. Our patients have access to multidisciplinary clinics that offer exceptional, compassionate care to children and adults with a variety of genetic disorders. Individuals in these multidisciplinary clinics have the opportunity to be evaluated by an experienced treatment team which includes multiple specialists from different healthcare disciplines.

Our specialists will determine which genetic tests are most appropriate for your particular situation. We discuss the risks, benefits, and limitations of genetic testing, as well as the emotional issues of a diagnosis and knowing your risk.

The Advocate Medical Group Genetics offers a range of services.

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Genetics - Advocate Health Care

Virtually all cells in the human body contain genes, making them potential targets for gene therapy. However, these cells can be divided into two major categories: somatic cells (most cells of the body) or cells of the germline (eggs or sperm). In theory it is possible to transform either somatic cells or germ cells.

Gene therapy using germ line cells results in permanent changes that are passed down to subsequent generations. If done early in embryologic development, such as during preimplantation diagnosis and in vitro fertilization, the gene transfer could also occur in all cells of the developing embryo. The appeal of germ line gene therapy is its potential for offering a permanent therapeutic effect for all who inherit the target gene. Successful germ line therapies introduce the possibility of eliminating some diseases from a particular family, and ultimately from the population, forever. However, this also raises controversy. Some people view this type of therapy as unnatural, and liken it to "playing God." Others have concerns about the technical aspects. They worry that the genetic change propagated by germ line gene therapy may actually be deleterious and harmful, with the potential for unforeseen negative effects on future generations.

Somatic cells are nonreproductive. Somatic cell therapy is viewed as a more conservative, safer approach because it affects only the targeted cells in the patient, and is not passed on to future generations. In other words, the therapeutic effect ends with the individual who receives the therapy. However, this type of therapy presents unique problems of its own. Often the effects of somatic cell therapy are short-lived. Because the cells of most tissues ultimately die and are replaced by new cells, repeated treatments over the course of the individual's life span are required to maintain the therapeutic effect. Transporting the gene to the target cells or tissue is also problematic. Regardless of these difficulties, however, somatic cell gene therapy is appropriate and acceptable for many disorders, including cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, cancer, and certain infectious diseases. Clinicians can even perform this therapy in utero, potentially correcting or treating a life-threatening disorder that may significantly impair a baby's health or development if not treated before birth.

In summary, the distinction is that the results of any somatic gene therapy are restricted to the actual patient and are not passed on to his or her children. All gene therapy to date on humans has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains controversial and prohibited in for instance the European Union.

Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split into two categories:

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Gene Therapy Technology Explanied

Integrative medicine is beneficial for people who want to maintain good health, as well as those who are looking to improve their current health. Evidence-based studies have shown that integrative medicine therapies reduce pain and anxiety, enhance healing, speed recovery, and promote feelings of peace and relaxation.

The Chambers Center for Well Being offers more than 20 different healing treatments, including holistic health assessments, nutritional assessments and counseling, lifestyle coaching, acupuncture and massage. Our experts can help you address current health concerns or work with you to prevent health issues such as high blood pressure and cholesterol, weight issues, stress and more.

Our outpatient services are available at two New Jersey locations, including Summit and Morristown, and one physician practice in Morristown.

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Atlantic Health System Integrative Medicine offers free bedside services throughout our hospitals, including therapeutic massage for new moms, acupressure, reflexology, aromatherapy, relaxation techniques and guided imagery. These services are for maternity, cardiac, orthopedic, pediatric, ICU, emergency room and all other patients throughout our hospitals.

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Integrative Medicine & Wellness Center - Morristown NJ

Session/Tracks

TheInternational Conference onIntegrative MedicineandNutritionwhich is going to be held during November 28-29, 2016 at Atlanta, USA will bring together world-class personalities working on Integrative Medicine and Nutrition to discuss materials-related strategies for betterment of health and disease remediation. The conferences offers an innovative, solution-driven platform for physicians and healthcare practitioners, researchers and students, politicians and patients, to collectively exchange and discuss research and research findings in the field of integrative medicine and nutrition andcollectively work on the vision and science, economics and education for optimal healthcare.

Track 1 : Integrative Medicine

Integrative medicine is grounded in the definition of health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Integrative medicine looks to restore and keep up understanding so as to wellbeing and health over a man's lifespan the patient's one of a kind arrangement of circumstances and tending to the full scope of physical, passionate, mental, social, profound and natural impacts that influence wellbeing.

Related Conferences:

Nutrition conferences,June 16-18, 2016, Holiday inn Rome- Aurelia, Rome, Italy,6th InternationalConference on Diet, August 18-20, 2016, UK, 5th InternationalConference on Clinical Nutrition, November 28-30, 2016, USA , 3rdInternationalConference on NutritionSeptember 23-25, 2014, Spain , 4th InternationalConference on Nutrition, October 26-28, 2015 Chicago, Illinois, USA; ICNM International Congress onNaturopathic MedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10th AustralianHomeopathic MedicineConference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia; The 2ndConference onEthnomedicine June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China.

Track 2 : Integrative Health

The field of integrative health and medicine reaffirms the significance of the relationship in the middle of expert and patient, concentrates all in all individual, is educated by confirmation, and makes utilization of all suitable remedial methodologies, healthcare professionals and professions to accomplish ideal health and mending. Basically, integrative health and medicine offer best practices for ideal health and recuperating.

Related Conferences:

4thGlobalAcupunctureAnnual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 6th Conference on TraditionalMedicine September 12-14, 2016 Amsterdam, Netherlands; Conference onPharmacologyand Ethnopharmacology May 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; Conference onTraditionalSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; The 2ndConference on Ethnomedicine(CETM 2016) June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China.ICNM International Congress on NaturopathicMedicine July 1-3, Barcelona, Spain

Track 3 : Integrative Biology

Integrative biology is a name oftentimes used to depict different types of cross-disciplinary and multitaxon research. The term is not well characterized, however truth be told it relies on rule that are changing 21st-century science. Collective and integrative biology creates new data and new thoughts by conveying different ability to issues, so that individual and institutional mastery gets to be more extensive and more exploratory as a result. Both examination and training modes must change to encourage new ways to deal with determining complex inquiries.

Related Conferences:

6thConference onTraditional MedicineSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands;Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA;Conference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Annual Meeting ofAcupuncture July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Conference onEthnomedicine June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;ICNM International Congress onNaturopathicMedicine July 1-3, Barcelona, Spain;AustralianHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 4: Integrative Cardiology

The field incorporates medicinal determination and treatment of inherent heart deformities, coronary supply route infection, heart disappointment, valvular coronary illness and electrophysiology. Integrative approach results in the best Cardiovascular Health outcomes. Through comprehension and applying the standards of Cardiovascular, Nutritional, Functional, and Mind-Body Medicine, deductively substantial choices are offered that incorporate, however go past an accentuation on remedies and techniques.

Related Conferences:

Track 5 : Integrative Oncology

Integrative oncology combines the discipline of modern science with the wisdom of traditional healing. It is an evolving evidence-based specialty that uses complementary therapies in concert with medical treatment to enhance its efficacy, improve symptom control, alleviate patient distress, andreduce suffering. Many of these therapies are used to improve coping and to help patients adhere to their medical treatment program. Integrative oncology focuses on the role of natural health products (botanicals, vitamins and minerals), nutrition, acupuncture, meditation and other mindbody approaches, music therapy, touch therapies (such as massage), fitness therapies, and more.

Related Conferences:

5thConference onTraditional MedicineSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternational Conference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA; The 2ndConference onEthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China; Conference onAcupuncture20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia; Conference on AyurvedaOctober 9-11, 2015, Santa Clara (Near San Jose), California, USA; Conference on AyurvedicSciences, October 24-25, 2015, Varanasi, India; 5thInternationalAyurvedaConference, December 11-18, 2015 Tamilnadu, India.

Track 6: CAM

Complementary and alternative medicine has never been more popular. Nearly 40 percent of adults report using complementary and alternative medicine, also called CAM for short.

Cam therapies are classified by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM):

Whole medical systems

Mind-body medicine

Biologically based practices

Manipulative and body-based practices

Energy medicine

Related Conferences:

6thInternational Conference onTraditional MedicineSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternational Conference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalAcupunctureAnnual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; The 2ndConference on EthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China; Acupuncture Conference 20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia; International Congress onNaturopathicMedicine July 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thAustralianHomeopathic Medicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia; FloridaHerbalConference, February 26-28 2016 Florida, USA

Track 7: Herbal Medicine

Home grown medicine, likewise called herbal medicine or phytomedicine, alludes to utilizing a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or blossoms for restorative purposes. Herbalism has a long custom of utilization outside routine medicine. It is turning out to be more standard as changes in examination and quality control, alongside advances in clinical exploration, demonstrate the estimation of home grown medicine in treating and anticipating disease.Herbal medicines are one sort of dietary supplement. They are sold as tablets, containers, powders, teas, extricates, and new or dried plants. Individuals use home grown medicines to attempt to keep up or enhance their wellbeing.

Related Conferences:

4thGlobalAcupunctureMeeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2nd InternationalConference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; Conference onEthnomedicine June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China; Chinese Medicine Annual Conference 20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;Congress on NaturopathicMedicine July 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 8: Mind & Body Therapy

This implies our contemplations, emotions, convictions, and dispositions can absolutely or adversely influence our natural working. At the end of the day, our psyches can influence how sound our bodies are!

Then again, what we do with our physical body (what we eat, the amount we work out, even our stance) can affect our mental state (again decidedly or adversely). This outcomes in an unpredictable interrelationship between our brains and bodies.They are methods intended to improve the psyche's sure effect on the body.

Related Conferences:5thInternational Conference onTraditional Medicine September 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; 2ndHolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thAcupuncture Annual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 1stInternational Conference on Unani Medicine, October 2015, Ukraine; 4thWorld Congress onUnani Medicine January 2016, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2ndInternational Conference onUnani medicine, November 2016, Toronto, Canada; World congress onUnani Medicine, March 2017, Mumbai, India.

Track 9: Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicineoriginated in ancient China and has evolved over thousands of years. Traditional Chinese Medicine is a system of primary health care that includesacupuncture,Chinese herbal medicine,remedial massage,exercise and breathing therapyanddiet and lifestyle advice. In Australia, the most popular forms ofTCMhealth care are acupuncture andChinese herbal medicine. It has an uninterrupted history of development in China and other parts of East Asia dating back thousands of years.

Related Conferences: 5thConference onTraditional MedicineSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands;Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternationalConference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA; The 2ndConference onEthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China; Conference onAcupuncture20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;Conference on AyurvedaOctober 9-11, 2015, Santa Clara (Near San Jose), California, USA;Conference on AyurvedicSciences, October 24-25, 2015, Varanasi, India; 5thInternationalAyurvedaConference, December 11-18, 2015 Tamilnadu, India.

Track 10: Acupuncture

Acupuncture involves the insertion of extremely thin needles through your skin at strategic points on your body. A key component oftraditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture is most commonly used to treat pain. Traditional Chinese medicine explains acupuncture as a technique for balancing the flow of energy or life force known as qi or chi (CHEE) believed to flow through pathways (meridians) in your body. By inserting needles into specific points along these meridians,acupuncture practitionersbelieve that your energy flow will re-balance. In contrast, many Western practitioners view the acupuncture points as places to stimulate nerves, muscles and connective tissue. Some believe that this stimulation boosts your body's natural painkillers and increases blood flow.

Related Conferences:4thGlobalAcupuncture Annual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternational Conference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA; 5thInternational Conference onAlternative MedicineSeptember 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; The 2ndConference onEthnomedicine (CETM 2016) June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China 1stConference on Unani Medicine, October 2015, Ukraine; 4thWorld Congress onUnani Medicine January 2016, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2ndConference onUnani medicine, November 2016, Toronto, Canada; 5thWorld congress onUnani Medicine, March 2017, Mumbai, India.

Track 11: Arabic & Unani Medicine

Unani medicine, also called Unani tibb, Arabian medicine, or Islamic medicine, a traditional system of healing and health maintenance observed in South Asia. The origins of Unani medicine are found in the doctrines of the ancient Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen. As a field, it was later developed and refined through systematic experiment by the Arabs, most prominently by Muslim scholar-physician Avicenna. During the Caliphate (the political-religious Muslim state that began in 632 ce), the bulk of Greek knowledge was translated into Arabic, part of that knowledge being the principles of medicine. With additional contributions of medical wisdom from other parts of the Middle East and South Asia, Unani medicine came to be known also as Arabian, or Islamic, medicine.

Related Conferences:5thInternational Conference onTraditional Medicine September 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; Global Summit onHerbals October 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobal SummitAcupunctureJuly 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; Conference on Unani Medicine, October 2015, Ukraine; 4thWorld Congress onUnani Medicine January 2016, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2ndConference onUnani medicine, November 2016, Toronto, Canada; 5thWorld congress onUnani Medicine, March 2017, Mumbai, India.

Track 12: Herbal Therapies for Prevention and Treatment

Herbal Therapies plays an important role in the treatment of various diseases from ancient times.Herbal treatmentin dentistry, ophthalmology, nephrology and gastroenterology, Herbal treatment in gynecology (Herbal Abortions), oncology, stem cell culture and reproductive health Herbal treatment in infectious, rheumatic and cardiovascular diseases, Herbal treatment in the treatment ofobesityand hormonal disorders, Herbal Laxatives are used to treat constipation. People use herbalhome remediesto try to maintain or improve their health. They treat various heart problems. Herbals are used inAddiction Therapy,Herbal Remedies for Depression.

Related Conferences:Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternationalConference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalAcupunctureAnnual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; The 2ndConference on EthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;AustralasianAcupuncture Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;Congress onNaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thAustralianHomeopathic Medicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;FloridaHerbalConference, February 26-28 2016 Florida, USA

Track 13 : Womens Health

Women have unique health issues. And some of the health issues that affect both men and women can affect women differently.

Unique issues includepregnancy,menopause, and conditions of the female organs. Women can have a healthy pregnancy by getting early and regularprenatal care. They should also get recommendedbreast cancer,cervical cancer, andbone densityscreenings.

Women and men also have many of the same health problems. But these problems can affect women differently. For example,

Related Conferences:

InternationalConferenceonPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;International Conference onHolisticsMedicine conferenceJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalGlobal Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, US;International Congress on NaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 14: Traditional medicine

Traditional medicine is the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness. Traditional medicine has been used for thousands of years with great contributions made by practitioners to human health, particularly as primary health care providers at the community level. TM/CAM has maintained its popularity worldwide. Since the 1990s its use has surged in many developed and developing countries.

Related Conferences:

5thInternationalConference onTraditional Medicine September 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; 2ndHolisticsMedicineJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thAcupuncture Annual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 1stInternationalConference on Unani Medicine,October 2015, Ukraine; 4thWorld Congress onUnani Medicine January 2016, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2ndInternationalConference onUnani medicine, November 2016, Toronto, Canada; World congress onUnani Medicine, March 2017, Mumbai, India.

Track 15 : MNDs and Health Outcomes

Micronutrient Deficiencies (MNDs) are of great public health and socioeconomic importance worldwide. They affect low-income countries but are also a significant factor in health problems in industrialized societies.Micronutrients are dietary components, often referred to as vitamins and minerals are vital for development, disease prevention, and wellbeing. Micronutrients are not produced in the body and must be derived from the diet.

Deficiencies in micronutrients such as iron, iodine, vitamin A, folate and zinc can have devastating consequences. At least half of children worldwide ages 6 months to 5 years suffer from one or more micronutrient deficiency, and globally more than 2 billion people are affected.

Related Conferences:

Global Summit onHerbals&Natural RemediesOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternationalConference onPharmacologyandEthnopharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalAcupunctureandTherapistsAnnual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; The 2ndConference on Ethnomedicineand Traditional Medicine (CETM 2016)June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;AustralasianAcupunctureand Chinese Medicine Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;ICNM International Congress onNaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thAustralianHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;FloridaHerbalConference, February 26-28 2016 Florida, USA

Track 16: Multidisciplinary Pain Management

Multidisciplinary pain management programs based on the bio-psycho-social model, the intensive treatment consisted of interventional injection techniques (eg, epidural, periradicular and facet joint injections) with a frequency of up to 8 injections per patient and additional multiple treatment approaches such as modification of analgesic medication, ergo therapy, massage therapy, back education, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and aqua training. Behavioral management, offered by physiotherapists, was performed twice a week. The implementation of psychosomatic therapy depended on the degree of chronification and psychological cofactors and was optional. However it was used with increased frequency over the time period observed.However, there are important limitations in this study concerning methodological and conceptional aspects.

Related Conferences:

InternationalConference onPharmacologyandEthnopharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicine July 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalAcupunctureandTherapistsAnnual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; The 2ndConference on Ethnomedicineand Traditional Medicine (CETM 2016)June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;AustralasianAcupunctureand Chinese Medicine Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;ICNM International Congress onNaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thAustralianHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;FloridaHerbalConference, February 26-28 2016 Florida, USA

Track 17: Selenium Disorders:

Selenium is a trace mineral needed by the body in small amounts for good health. It appears to be a major catalyst to the activation of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase which is a major preventer of free radicals. It is also important for proper thyroid function. As anti-oxidant, having an adequate tissue level of Selenium may be protective for heart disease and cancer as oxidative imbalance has been implicated in both diseases. Recently, an important study showed the capability of Selenium to inhibit the ability of a virus to mutate once imbedded in its host. Selenium is also an important heavy metal chelator, These enzymes help prevent cellular damage from free radicals that can cause the development of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Selenium intake improves immune function and poliovirus handling in adults with marginal selenium status. Selenium also boosts immune system.

Related Conferences:

4thGlobalAcupunctureMeetingJuly 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternationalConference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicineJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Conference onEthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;Chinese Medicine Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;Congress on NaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 18: Autism Disorder

Autism is aneurodevelopment disordercharacterized by impairedsocial interaction,verbalandnon-verbal communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach theirdevelopmental milestonesat a normal pace and thenregress. The diagnostic criteriarequire that symptoms become apparent in early childhood, typically before age three. Autism appears to have its roots in very early brain development. However, the most obvious signs of autism and symptoms of autism tend to emerge between 2 and 3 years of age. Autism Speaks continues to fund research on effective methods for earlier diagnosis, as early intervention with proven behavioral therapies can improve outcomes. Increasing autism awareness is a key aspect of this work and one in which our families and volunteers play an invaluable role.

Related Conferences:

5thInternationalConference onTraditional Medicine September 12-14, Amsterdam, Netherlands; 2ndHolisticsMedicineJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thAcupuncture Annual Meeting July 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 1stInternationalConference on Unani Medicine,October 2015, Ukraine; 4thWorld Congress onUnani Medicine January 2016, Kathmandu, Nepal; 2ndInternationalConference onUnani medicine, November 2016, Toronto, Canada; World congress onUnani Medicine, March 2017, Mumbai, India.

Track 19: Nutrition

Nutritionis the combination of catabolism and anabolism of food in the body. Nutritional Science investigates the Metabolic and Physiological responses of the body to diet. The study Nutrition is increasingly concerned with Metabolism and Metabolic pathways, the sequence of biochemical steps through which substances in living things change from one form to another.It has been acknowledged that unhealthy eating and physical inactivity are leading causes of death. According to recent surveys, unhealthy eating and inactivity cause 310,000-580,000 deaths every year.

Related Conferences:

5th InternationalConference on Clinical Nutrition, November 28-30, 2016, USA , 3rdInternationalConference and Exhibition on Nutrition&Food SciencesSeptember 23-25, 2014, Spain , 4th InternationalConference and Exhibition on Nutrition, October 26-28, 2015 Chicago, Illinois, USA, 2ndWorldNutraceutical Conference and ExpoJuly 11-13, 2016, Malaysia,2ndSingaporeClinical Nutrition Meeting, 26-27 April, 2014, Singapore, 37th European Society ForClinical NutritionAnd Metabolism Congress, 05 - 08 September 2015, Lisbon, 35th ESPENCongress on Clinical Nutrition & Metabolism2013, 31 August - 3 September 2013, Germany, 36th European Society ForClinical Nutrition And Metabolism Congress, 06 - 09 September 2014, Switzerland, The 5th Annual Middle Congress on Clinical Nutrition, 22 - 24 March 2016, Egypt

Track 20: Sports Nutrition

The rom the athletes point of view, there is nutrition related to workouts and events, and general nutrition. Nutrition related to workouts and events refers to nutrition before, during, and after workouts and events. It is about pre exercise, during exercise, and post-exercise nutrition. It is mostly about fluids and carbohydrate calories. It is a little about sodium. Of course, caloric mix and quality, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients have important roles to play in general or overall nutrition. There are several major reasons to study interactions between muscle protein imteraction during and after exercise and nutrition.

Related Conferences:

Nutrition conferences,June16-18, 2016, Holiday inn Rome- Aurelia, Rome, Italy,Global Summit on Plant ScienceSeptember 21-23, 2015, USA, 5thInternationalConference on Agriculture&HorticultureJune 27-29, 2016 , South Africa, InternationalConference on Plant PhysiologyJune 09-11, 2016 Dallas, USA, 5thEuro-GlobalSummit and Expo on Food&BeveragesJune 16-18, 2015 Alicante, Spain, 2ndGlobalSummit on Aquaculture&FisheriesJuly 11-13, 2016 , Malaysia WorldConference on InnovativeAnimal Nutritionand Feeding, October 15-172015, Hungary, Third Annual InternationalPlant-Based Nutrition Healthcare Conference, Sept 30 Oct 3, 2015 USA, 17thInternationalPlant NutritionColloquium(IPNC), 19-22 August, 2013, Turkey, CaliforniaAnimal Nutrition Conference, May 6-7 2015, USA, IX Biennial ConferenceAnimal Nutrition Conference, January 22-24, 2015, India

Track 21: Clinical Nutrition

Clinical Nutrition is of focal significance for our capacity to handle sicknesses by and large, diseases, surgery and injury specifically. The target of sustenance treatment is enhanced patient result by keeping away from ailing health keeping up body tissue and working plasma protein stores counteracting large scale and micronutrient deficiency.No patient ought to have deficient admission of vitality and substrates in current clinic care treatment. The parenteral course can be utilized effectively when different options of support are troublesome or outlandish. These days, completely sufficient nourishment can be performed by giving aggregate parenteral sustenance (TPN). The regimen can be individualized to cover distinctive necessities. In the fleeting we can make up for unsettling influences in the more drawn out term we can keep up dietary equalization.

Related Conferences: GlobalHerbals conferenceandNatural RemediesOctober 17-19, 2016 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternational ConferenceonPharmacologyandEthnopharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;International Conference onHolisticsMedicine conferenceandHolistic NursingJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 4thGlobalAcupunctureconferenceand Therapists Annual MeetingJuly 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA; 6thInternational Conference on Traditional Medicine&Alternative MedicineSeptember 14-16, 2016 Amsterdam, Netherlands; The 2ndEthnomedicineandTraditional Medicine conference(CETM) June 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China; (AACMAC) 2016-AustralasianAcupuncturetherapyandChinese Medicine Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia; (ICNM) InternationalCongress onNaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thAustralianHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 22: Plant & Animal Nutrition

Plantsare irreplaceable food resources for humans. Synthetic chemicals and petroleum derivatives can replace many plant-derived medicines, fibers, and dyes; metal, brick, and concrete can replace wood; but there is no substitute forplant-derived foods. Almost allhuman foodsare plants or organisms that eat plantsAnimal nutritiondeals with nutritional benefits on consumption ofdairyproducts, genetically modified animal nutrition, meats and fish and also a section view to farm environment.

Billions of people around the world consumemilk and dairy productsevery day. Not only are milk and dairy products a vital source of nutrition for these people, they also present livelihoods opportunities for farmers, processors, shopkeepers and other stakeholders in the dairy value chain. But to achieve this, consumers, industry and governments need up-to-date information on how milk and dairy products can contribute tohuman nutritionand how dairying anddairy-industrydevelopment can best contribute to increasing food security and alleviating poverty.

Related Conferences:

6th InternationalConference on Diet, August 18-20, 2016, UK, 5th InternationalConference on Clinical Nutrition, November 28-30, 2016, USA , 3rdInternationalConference on NutritionSeptember 23-25, 2014, Spain , 4th InternationalConference on Nutrition, October 26-28, 2015 Chicago, Illinois, USA; ICNM InternationalCongress onNaturopathic MedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10th AustralianHomeopathic MedicineConference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia; The 2ndConference onEthnomedicineandTraditional MedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China.

Nutraceuticals is used to describe any food, or part of a food supplements, that offers medical or health related benefit beyond simple nutrition. Such benefits may include the prevention or recurrence of disease. These products range from proteins, vitamins, minerals, pure compounds and natural based used in capsules, tablets to foods that contain fortified bioactive ingredients. A market research report produced in 2012 projected that the worldwide Nutraceuticals market would reach US$250 billion by 2018,defining that market as "Dietary Supplements (Vitamins, Minerals, Herbals, Non-Herbals, & Others), and Functional Foods & Beverage.

Related Conferences:4thGlobalAcupunctureMeetingJuly 14-16, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Global Summit onHerbalsOctober 26-27, 2015 Chicago, USA; 2ndInternationalConference onPharmacologyMay 02-04, 2016 Chicago, USA;HolisticsMedicineJuly 14-15, 2016 Philadelphia, USA;Conference onEthnomedicineJune 1-3, 2016, Nanjing, China;Chinese Medicine Annual Conference20-22 May 2016, Perth, Australia;Congress on NaturopathicMedicineJuly 1-3, Barcelona, Spain; 10thHomeopathicMedicine Conference, October 22-23, 2016 Brisbane, Australia;

Track 24: Malnutrition

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Integrative Medicine & Nutrition 2016 | 2017 | Conference ...

In biology, adipose tissue i, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes.[1] In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ,[2] as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and the cytokine TNF. The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue more specifically brown adipose tissue was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551.[3]

In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat), around internal organs (visceral fat), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow), intermuscular (Muscular system) and in the breast tissue. Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present, collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells. Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be burned to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipid synthesis from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself.[4] Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain.

Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity.[1] The paired gonadal depots are attached to the uterus and ovaries in females and the epididymis and testes in males; the paired retroperitoneal depots are found along the dorsal wall of the abdomen, surrounding the kidney, and, when massive, extend into the pelvis. The mesenteric depot forms a glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot (which originates near the stomach and spleen) and- when massive- extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, respectively. The two superficial depots are the paired inguinal depots, which are found anterior to the upper segment of the hind limbs (underneath the skin) and the subscapular depots, paired medial mixtures of brown adipose tissue adjacent to regions of white adipose tissue, which are found under the skin between the dorsal crests of the scapulae. The layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a "frosting" of white adipose tissue; sometimes these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node.[5] Of all the depots in the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most easily dissected,[6] comprising about 30% of dissectible fat.[7]

In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus (or pannus). A panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as a literal "apron of skin" if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass surgery). This condition cannot be effectively corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume and diameter.[citation needed] Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment.

Visceral fat or abdominal fat[8] (also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat) is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is different from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat interspersed in skeletal muscles. Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral and semi-fluid.[9] Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal depots. Visceral fat is often expressed in terms of its area in cm2 (VFA, visceral fat area).[10]

An excess of visceral fat is known as central obesity, or "belly fat", in which the abdomen protrudes excessively and new developments such as the Body Volume Index (BVI) are specifically designed to measure abdominal volume and abdominal fat. Excess visceral fat is also linked to type 2 diabetes,[11]insulin resistance,[12]inflammatory diseases,[13] and other obesity-related diseases.[14] Likewise, the accumulation of neck fat (or cervical adipose tissue) has been shown to be associated with mortality.[15]

Men are more likely to have fat stored in the abdomen due to sex hormone differences. Female sex hormone causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women.[16][17] When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by the ovaries declines, fat migrates from the buttocks, hips and thighs to the waist;[18] later fat is stored in the abdomen.[19]

High-intensity exercise is one way to effectively reduce total abdominal fat.[20][21] One study suggests at least 10 MET-hours per week of aerobic exercise is required for visceral fat reduction.[22]

Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a particular form of visceral fat deposited around the heart and found to be a metabolically active organ that generates various bioactive molecules, which might significantly affect cardiac function.[23] Marked component differences have been observed in comparing EAT with subcutaneous fat, suggesting a depot specific impact of stored fatty acids on adipocyte function and metabolism.[24]

Most of the remaining nonvisceral fat is found just below the skin in a region called the hypodermis.[25] This subcutaneous fat is not related to many of the classic obesity-related pathologies, such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke, and some evidence even suggests it might be protective.[26] The typically female (or gynecoid) pattern of body fat distribution around the hips, thighs, and buttocks is subcutaneous fat, and therefore poses less of a health risk compared to visceral fat.[27]

Like all other fat organs, subcutaneous fat is an active part of the endocrine system, secreting the hormones leptin and resistin.[25]

The relationship between the subcutaneous adipose layer and total body fat in a person is often modelled by using regression equations. The most popular of these equations was formed by Durnin and Wormersley, who rigorously tested many types of skinfold, and, as a result, created two formulae to calculate the body density of both men and women. These equations present an inverse correlation between skinfolds and body densityas the sum of skinfolds increases, the body density decreases.[28]

Factors such as sex, age, population size or other variables may make the equations invalid and unusable, and, as of 2012[update], Durnin and Wormersley's equations remain only estimates of a person's true level of fatness. New formulae are still being created.[28]

Ectopic fat is the storage of triglycerides in tissues other than adipose tissue, that are supposed to contain only small amounts of fat, such as the liver, skeletal muscle, heart, and pancreas.[1] This can interfere with cellular functions and hence organ function and is associated with insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes.[29] It is stored in relatively high amounts around the organs of the abdominal cavity, but is not to be confused as visceral fat.

The specific cause for the accumulation of ectopic fat is unknown. The cause is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors that are involved in excess energy intake and decreased physical activity. Substantial weight loss can reduce ectopic fat stores in all organs and this is associated with an improvement of the function of that organ.[29]

Free fatty acids are liberated from lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and enter the adipocyte, where they are reassembled into triglycerides by esterifying it onto glycerol. Human fat tissue contains about 87% lipids[citation needed].

There is a constant flux of FFA (Free Fatty Acids) entering and leaving adipose tissue. The net direction of this flux is controlled by insulin and leptinif insulin is elevated, then there is a net inward flux of FFA, and only when insulin is low can FFA leave adipose tissue. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood sugar, which results from consuming carbohydrates.

In humans, lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids) is controlled through the balanced control of lipolytic B-adrenergic receptors and a2A-adrenergic receptor-mediated antilipolysis.

Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profilebeing more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension).[30] Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.[31]

Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patient's own cells. In addition, adipose-derived stem cells from both human and animals reportedly can be efficiently reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells without the need for feeder cells.[32] The use of a patient's own cells reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids ethical issues associated with the use of human embryonic stem cells.[33] A growing body of evidence also suggests that different fat depots (i.e. abdominal, omental, pericardial) yield adipose-derived stem cells with different characteristics.[33][34] These depot-dependent features include proliferation rate, immunophenotype, differentiation potential, gene expression, as well as sensitivity to hypoxic culture conditions.[35]

Adipose tissue is the greatest peripheral source of aromatase in both males and females,[citation needed] contributing to the production of estradiol.

Adipose derived hormones include:

Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cell-to-cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipocytokines), which play a role in obesity-associated complications. Perivascular adipose tissue releases adipokines such as adiponectin that affect the contractile function of the vessels that they surround.[1][36]

Brown fat or brown adipose tissue is a specialized form of adipose tissue in humans and other mammals.[37] It is located mainly around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax. This specialized tissue can generate heat by "uncoupling" the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria. The process of uncoupling means that when protons transit down the electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, the energy from this process is released as heat rather than being used to generate ATP. This thermogenic process may be vital in neonates exposed to cold, which then require this thermogenesis to keep warm, as they are unable to shiver, or take other actions to keep themselves warm.[38]

Attempts to simulate this process pharmacologically have so far been unsuccessful. Techniques to manipulate the differentiation of "brown fat" could become a mechanism for weight loss therapy in the future, encouraging the growth of tissue with this specialized metabolism without inducing it in other organs.

Until recently, brown adipose tissue was thought to be primarily limited to infants in humans, but new evidence has now overturned that belief. Metabolically active tissue with temperature responses similar to brown adipose was first reported in the neck and trunk of some human adults in 2007,[39] and the presence of brown adipose in human adults was later verified histologically in the same anatomical regions.[40][41][42]

Browning of WAT, also referred to as beiging, occurs when adipocytes within WAT depots develop features of BAT. Beige adipocytes take on a multilocular appearance (containing several lipid droplets) and increase expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1).[43] In doing so, these normally energy-storing adipocytes become energy-releasing adipocytes.

UCP1 is a protein predominantly found in BAT.[44] It acts to dissipate the proton gradient generated by oxidative phosphorylation, leading to the production of heat. Release of catecholamines from sympathetic nerves results in UCP1 activation and usually occurs after extended periods of cold exposure or in response to overfeeding.[45] UCP1 activity is stimulated by long chain fatty acids that are produced subsequent to -adrenergic receptor activation.[46] UCP1 is proposed to function as a fatty acid proton symporter, although the exact mechanism has yet to be elucidated.[47] In contrast, UCP1 is inhibited by ATP, ADP, and GTP.[48]

The calorie-burning capacity of brown and beige fat has been extensively studied as research efforts focus on therapies targeted to treat obesity and diabetes. The drug 2,4-dinitrophenol, which also acts as a chemical uncoupler similarly to UCP1, was used for weight loss in the 1930s. However, it was quickly discontinued when excessive dosing led to adverse side effects including hyperthermia and death.[43] 3 agonists, like CL316,243, have also been developed and tested in humans. However, the use of such drugs has proven largely unsuccessful due to several challenges, including varying species receptor specificity and poor oral bioavailability.[49]

Cold is a primary regulator of BAT processes and induces WAT browning. Browning in response to chronic cold exposure has been well documented and is a reversible process. A study in mice demonstrated that cold-induced browning can be completely reversed in 21 days, with measurable decreases in UCP1 seen within a 24 hour period.[50] A study by Rosenwald et al. revealed that when the animals are re-exposed to a cold environment, the same adipocytes will adopt a beige phenotype, suggesting that beige adipocytes are retained.[51]

Transcriptional regulators, as well as a growing number of other factors, regulate the induction of beige fat. Three regulators of transcription are central to WAT browning and serve as targets for many of the molecules known to influence this process.[52] These include peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR), PR domain containing 16 (PRDM16), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1).[52] The list of molecules that influence browning has grown in direct proportion to the popularity of this topic and is constantly evolving as more knowledge is acquired. Among these molecules are irisin and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), which have been well-studied and are believed to be important regulators of browning. Irisin is secreted from muscle in response to exercise and has been shown to increase browning by acting on beige preadipocytes.[53] FGF21, a hormone secreted mainly by the liver, has garnered a great deal of interest after being identified as a potent stimulator of glucose uptake and a browning regulator through its effects on PGC-1.[43] It is increased in BAT during cold exposure and is thought to aid in resistance to diet-induced obesity[54] FGF21 may also be secreted in response to exercise and a low protein diet, although the latter has not been thoroughly investigated.[55][56] Data from these studies suggest that environmental factors like diet and exercise may be important mediators of browning.

Due to the complex nature of adipose tissue and a growing list of browning regulatory molecules, great potential exists for the use of bioinformatics tools to improve study within this field. Studies of WAT browning have greatly benefited from advances in these techniques, as beige fat is rapidly gaining popularity as a therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity and diabetes.

DNA microarray is a bioinformatics tool used to quantify expression levels of various genes simultaneously, and has been used extensively in the study of adipose tissue. One such study used microarray analysis in conjunction with Ingenuity IPA software to look at changes in WAT and BAT gene expression when mice were exposed to temperatures of 28 and 6C.[57] The most significantly up- and downregulated genes were then identified and used for analysis of differentially expressed pathways. It was discovered that many of the pathways upregulated in WAT after cold exposure are also highly expressed in BAT, such as oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid metabolism, and pyruvate metabolism.[57] This suggests that some of the adipocytes switched to a beige phenotype at 6C. Mssenbck et al. also used microarray analysis to demonstrate that insulin deficiency inhibits the differentiation of beige adipocytes but does not disturb their capacity for browning.[58] These two studies demonstrate the potential for the use of microarray in the study of WAT browning.

RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) is a powerful computational tool that allows for the quantification of RNA expression for all genes within a sample. Incorporating RNA-Seq into browning studies is of great value, as it offers better specificity, sensitivity, and a more comprehensive overview of gene expression than other methods. RNA-Seq has been used in both human and mouse studies in an attempt characterize beige adipocytes according to their gene expression profiles and to identify potential therapeutic molecules that may induce the beige phenotype. One such study used RNA-Seq to compare gene expression profiles of WAT from wild-type (WT) mice and those overexpressing Early B-Cell Factor-2 (EBF2). WAT from the transgenic animals exhibited a brown fat gene program and had decreased WAT specific gene expression compared to the WT mice.[59] Thus, EBF2 has been identified as a potential therapeutic molecule to induce beiging.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a method used to identify protein binding sites on DNA and assess histone modifications. This tool has enabled examination of epigenetic regulation of browning and helps elucidate the mechanisms by which protein-DNA interactions stimulate the differentiation of beige adipocytes. Studies observing the chromatin landscapes of beige adipocytes have found that adipogenesis of these cells results from the formation of cell specific chromatin landscapes, which regulate the transcriptional program and, ultimately, control differentiation. Using ChIP-seq in conjunction with other tools, recent studies have identified over 30 transcriptional and epigenetic factors that influence beige adipocyte development.[59]

The thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations the body would be more efficient at retaining fat in times of plenty, thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance, has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains "as viable as when [it was] first advanced" in other contexts.[60][61]

In 1995, Jeffrey Friedman, in his residency at the Rockefeller University, together with Rudolph Leibel, Douglas Coleman et al. discovered the protein leptin that the genetically obese mouse lacked.[62][63][64] Leptin is produced in the white adipose tissue and signals to the hypothalamus. When leptin levels drop, the body interprets this as a loss of energy, and hunger increases. Mice lacking this protein eat until they are four times their normal size.

Leptin, however, plays a different role in diet-induced obesity in rodents and humans. Because adipocytes produce leptin, leptin levels are elevated in the obese. However, hunger remains, and- when leptin levels drop due to weight loss- hunger increases. The drop of leptin is better viewed as a starvation signal than the rise of leptin as a satiety signal.[65] However, elevated leptin in obesity is known as leptin resistance. The changes that occur in the hypothalamus to result in leptin resistance in obesity are currently the focus of obesity research.[66]

Gene defects in the leptin gene (ob) are rare in human obesity.[67] As of July, 2010, only 14 individuals from five families have been identified worldwide who carry a mutated ob gene (one of which was the first ever identified cause of genetic obesity in humans)two families of Pakistani origin living in the UK, one family living in Turkey, one in Egypt, and one in Austria[68][69][70][71][72]and two other families have been found that carry a mutated ob receptor.[73][74] Others have been identified as genetically partially deficient in leptin, and, in these individuals, leptin levels on the low end of the normal range can predict obesity.[75]

Several mutations of genes involving the melanocortins (used in brain signaling associated with appetite) and their receptors have also been identified as causing obesity in a larger portion of the population than leptin mutations.[76]

In 2007, researchers isolated the adipose gene, which those researchers hypothesize serves to keep animals lean during times of plenty. In that study, increased adipose gene activity was associated with slimmer animals.[77] Although its discoverers dubbed this gene the adipose gene, it is not a gene responsible for creating adipose tissue.

Pre-adipocytes are undifferentiated fibroblasts that can be stimulated to form adipocytes. Recent studies shed light into potential molecular mechanisms in the fate determination of pre-adipocytes although the exact lineage of adipocyte is still unclear.[78][79]

Adipose tissue has a density of ~0.9g/ml.[80] Thus, a person with more adipose tissue will float more easily than a person of the same weight with more muscular tissue, since muscular tissue has a density of 1.06g/ml.[81]

A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the body fat to weight ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage.[82]

In contrast with clinical tools, one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in order to determine an individual's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before the analysis.

Within the fat (adipose) tissue of CCR2 deficient mice, there is an increased number of eosinophils, greater alternative Macrophage activation, and a propensity towards type 2 cytokine expression. Furthermore, this effect was exaggerated when the mice became obese from a high fat diet.[83]

Diagrammatic sectional view of the skin (magnified).

White adipose tissue in paraffin section

Electronic instrument of body fat meter

Original post:
Adipose tissue - Wikipedia

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the transplantation of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, usually derived from bone marrow, peripheral blood, or umbilical cord blood.[1][2] It may be autologous (the patient's own stem cells are used), allogeneic (the stem cells come from a donor) or syngeneic (from an identical twin).[1][2] It is a medical procedure in the field of hematology, most often performed for patients with certain cancers of the blood or bone marrow, such as multiple myeloma or leukemia.[2] In these cases, the recipient's immune system is usually destroyed with radiation or chemotherapy before the transplantation. Infection and graft-versus-host disease are major complications of allogeneic HSCT.[2]

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation remains a dangerous procedure with many possible complications; it is reserved for patients with life-threatening diseases. As survival following the procedure has increased, its use has expanded beyond cancer, such as autoimmune diseases.[3][4]

Indications for stem cell transplantation are as follows:

Many recipients of HSCTs are multiple myeloma[5] or leukemia patients[6] who would not benefit from prolonged treatment with, or are already resistant to, chemotherapy. Candidates for HSCTs include pediatric cases where the patient has an inborn defect such as severe combined immunodeficiency or congenital neutropenia with defective stem cells, and also children or adults with aplastic anemia[7] who have lost their stem cells after birth. Other conditions[8] treated with stem cell transplants include sickle-cell disease, myelodysplastic syndrome, neuroblastoma, lymphoma, Ewing's sarcoma, desmoplastic small round cell tumor, chronic granulomatous disease and Hodgkin's disease. More recently non-myeloablative, "mini transplant(microtransplantation)," procedures have been developed that require smaller doses of preparative chemo and radiation. This has allowed HSCT to be conducted in the elderly and other patients who would otherwise be considered too weak to withstand a conventional treatment regimen.

In 2006 a total of 50,417 first hematopoietic stem cell transplants were reported as taking place worldwide, according to a global survey of 1327 centers in 71 countries conducted by the Worldwide Network for Blood and Marrow Transplantation. Of these, 28,901 (57 percent) were autologous and 21,516 (43 percent) were allogeneic (11,928 from family donors and 9,588 from unrelated donors). The main indications for transplant were lymphoproliferative disorders (54.5 percent) and leukemias (33.8 percent), and the majority took place in either Europe (48 percent) or the Americas (36 percent).[9]

In 2014, according to the World Marrow Donor Association, stem cell products provided for unrelated transplantation worldwide had increased to 20,604 (4,149 bone marrow donations, 12,506 peripheral blood stem cell donations, and 3,949 cord blood units).[10]

Autologous HSCT requires the extraction (apheresis) of haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) from the patient and storage of the harvested cells in a freezer. The patient is then treated with high-dose chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy with the intention of eradicating the patient's malignant cell population at the cost of partial or complete bone marrow ablation (destruction of patient's bone marrow's ability to grow new blood cells). The patient's own stored stem cells are then transfused into his/her bloodstream, where they replace destroyed tissue and resume the patient's normal blood cell production. Autologous transplants have the advantage of lower risk of infection during the immune-compromised portion of the treatment since the recovery of immune function is rapid. Also, the incidence of patients experiencing rejection (and graft-versus-host disease is impossible) is very rare due to the donor and recipient being the same individual. These advantages have established autologous HSCT as one of the standard second-line treatments for such diseases as lymphoma.[11]

However, for other cancers such as acute myeloid leukemia, the reduced mortality of the autogenous relative to allogeneic HSCT may be outweighed by an increased likelihood of cancer relapse and related mortality, and therefore the allogeneic treatment may be preferred for those conditions.[12] Researchers have conducted small studies using non-myeloablative hematopoietic stem cell transplantation as a possible treatment for type I (insulin dependent) diabetes in children and adults. Results have been promising; however, as of 2009[update] it was premature to speculate whether these experiments will lead to effective treatments for diabetes.[13]

Allogeneics HSCT involves two people: the (healthy) donor and the (patient) recipient. Allogeneic HSC donors must have a tissue (HLA) type that matches the recipient. Matching is performed on the basis of variability at three or more loci of the HLA gene, and a perfect match at these loci is preferred. Even if there is a good match at these critical alleles, the recipient will require immunosuppressive medications to mitigate graft-versus-host disease. Allogeneic transplant donors may be related (usually a closely HLA matched sibling), syngeneic (a monozygotic or 'identical' twin of the patient - necessarily extremely rare since few patients have an identical twin, but offering a source of perfectly HLA matched stem cells) or unrelated (donor who is not related and found to have very close degree of HLA matching). Unrelated donors may be found through a registry of bone marrow donors such as the National Marrow Donor Program. People who would like to be tested for a specific family member or friend without joining any of the bone marrow registry data banks may contact a private HLA testing laboratory and be tested with a mouth swab to see if they are a potential match.[14] A "savior sibling" may be intentionally selected by preimplantation genetic diagnosis in order to match a child both regarding HLA type and being free of any obvious inheritable disorder. Allogeneic transplants are also performed using umbilical cord blood as the source of stem cells. In general, by transfusing healthy stem cells to the recipient's bloodstream to reform a healthy immune system, allogeneic HSCTs appear to improve chances for cure or long-term remission once the immediate transplant-related complications are resolved.[15][16][17]

A compatible donor is found by doing additional HLA-testing from the blood of potential donors. The HLA genes fall in two categories (Type I and Type II). In general, mismatches of the Type-I genes (i.e. HLA-A, HLA-B, or HLA-C) increase the risk of graft rejection. A mismatch of an HLA Type II gene (i.e. HLA-DR, or HLA-DQB1) increases the risk of graft-versus-host disease. In addition a genetic mismatch as small as a single DNA base pair is significant so perfect matches require knowledge of the exact DNA sequence of these genes for both donor and recipient. Leading transplant centers currently perform testing for all five of these HLA genes before declaring that a donor and recipient are HLA-identical.

Race and ethnicity are known to play a major role in donor recruitment drives, as members of the same ethnic group are more likely to have matching genes, including the genes for HLA.[18]

As of 2013[update], there were at least two commercialized allogeneic cell therapies, Prochymal and Cartistem.[19]

To limit the risks of transplanted stem cell rejection or of severe graft-versus-host disease in allogeneic HSCT, the donor should preferably have the same human leukocyte antigens (HLA) as the recipient. About 25 to 30 percent of allogeneic HSCT recipients have an HLA-identical sibling. Even so-called "perfect matches" may have mismatched minor alleles that contribute to graft-versus-host disease.

In the case of a bone marrow transplant, the HSC are removed from a large bone of the donor, typically the pelvis, through a large needle that reaches the center of the bone. The technique is referred to as a bone marrow harvest and is performed under general anesthesia.

Peripheral blood stem cells[20] are now the most common source of stem cells for HSCT. They are collected from the blood through a process known as apheresis. The donor's blood is withdrawn through a sterile needle in one arm and passed through a machine that removes white blood cells. The red blood cells are returned to the donor. The peripheral stem cell yield is boosted with daily subcutaneous injections of Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, serving to mobilize stem cells from the donor's bone marrow into the peripheral circulation.

It is also possible to extract stem cells from amniotic fluid for both autologous or heterologous use at the time of childbirth.

Umbilical cord blood is obtained when a mother donates her infant's umbilical cord and placenta after birth. Cord blood has a higher concentration of HSC than is normally found in adult blood. However, the small quantity of blood obtained from an Umbilical Cord (typically about 50 mL) makes it more suitable for transplantation into small children than into adults. Newer techniques using ex-vivo expansion of cord blood units or the use of two cord blood units from different donors allow cord blood transplants to be used in adults.

Cord blood can be harvested from the Umbilical Cord of a child being born after preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for human leucocyte antigen (HLA) matching (see PGD for HLA matching) in order to donate to an ill sibling requiring HSCT.

Unlike other organs, bone marrow cells can be frozen (cryopreserved) for prolonged periods without damaging too many cells. This is a necessity with autologous HSC because the cells must be harvested from the recipient months in advance of the transplant treatment. In the case of allogeneic transplants, fresh HSC are preferred in order to avoid cell loss that might occur during the freezing and thawing process. Allogeneic cord blood is stored frozen at a cord blood bank because it is only obtainable at the time of childbirth. To cryopreserve HSC, a preservative, DMSO, must be added, and the cells must be cooled very slowly in a controlled-rate freezer to prevent osmotic cellular injury during ice crystal formation. HSC may be stored for years in a cryofreezer, which typically uses liquid nitrogen.

The chemotherapy or irradiation given immediately prior to a transplant is called the conditioning regimen, the purpose of which is to help eradicate the patient's disease prior to the infusion of HSC and to suppress immune reactions. The bone marrow can be ablated (destroyed) with dose-levels that cause minimal injury to other tissues. In allogeneic transplants a combination of cyclophosphamide with total body irradiation is conventionally employed. This treatment also has an immunosuppressive effect that prevents rejection of the HSC by the recipient's immune system. The post-transplant prognosis often includes acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease that may be life-threatening. However, in certain leukemias this can coincide with protection against cancer relapse owing to the graft versus tumor effect.[21]Autologous transplants may also use similar conditioning regimens, but many other chemotherapy combinations can be used depending on the type of disease.

A newer treatment approach, non-myeloablative allogeneic transplantation, also termed reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC), uses doses of chemotherapy and radiation too low to eradicate all the bone marrow cells of the recipient.[22]:320321 Instead, non-myeloablative transplants run lower risks of serious infections and transplant-related mortality while relying upon the graft versus tumor effect to resist the inherent increased risk of cancer relapse.[23][24] Also significantly, while requiring high doses of immunosuppressive agents in the early stages of treatment, these doses are less than for conventional transplants.[25] This leads to a state of mixed chimerism early after transplant where both recipient and donor HSC coexist in the bone marrow space.

Decreasing doses of immunosuppressive therapy then allows donor T-cells to eradicate the remaining recipient HSC and to induce the graft versus tumor effect. This effect is often accompanied by mild graft-versus-host disease, the appearance of which is often a surrogate marker for the emergence of the desirable graft versus tumor effect, and also serves as a signal to establish an appropriate dosage level for sustained treatment with low levels of immunosuppressive agents.

Because of their gentler conditioning regimens, these transplants are associated with a lower risk of transplant-related mortality and therefore allow patients who are considered too high-risk for conventional allogeneic HSCT to undergo potentially curative therapy for their disease. The optimal conditioning strategy for each disease and recipient has not been fully established, but RIC can be used in elderly patients unfit for myeloablative regimens, for whom a higher risk of cancer relapse may be acceptable.[22][24]

After several weeks of growth in the bone marrow, expansion of HSC and their progeny is sufficient to normalize the blood cell counts and re-initiate the immune system. The offspring of donor-derived hematopoietic stem cells have been documented to populate many different organs of the recipient, including the heart, liver, and muscle, and these cells had been suggested to have the abilities of regenerating injured tissue in these organs. However, recent research has shown that such lineage infidelity does not occur as a normal phenomenon[citation needed].

HSCT is associated with a high treatment-related mortality in the recipient (1 percent or higher)[citation needed], which limits its use to conditions that are themselves life-threatening. Major complications are veno-occlusive disease, mucositis, infections (sepsis), graft-versus-host disease and the development of new malignancies.

Bone marrow transplantation usually requires that the recipient's own bone marrow be destroyed ("myeloablation"). Prior to "engraftment" patients may go for several weeks without appreciable numbers of white blood cells to help fight infection. This puts a patient at high risk of infections, sepsis and septic shock, despite prophylactic antibiotics. However, antiviral medications, such as acyclovir and valacyclovir, are quite effective in prevention of HSCT-related outbreak of herpetic infection in seropositive patients.[26] The immunosuppressive agents employed in allogeneic transplants for the prevention or treatment of graft-versus-host disease further increase the risk of opportunistic infection. Immunosuppressive drugs are given for a minimum of 6-months after a transplantation, or much longer if required for the treatment of graft-versus-host disease. Transplant patients lose their acquired immunity, for example immunity to childhood diseases such as measles or polio. For this reason transplant patients must be re-vaccinated with childhood vaccines once they are off immunosuppressive medications.

Severe liver injury can result from hepatic veno-occlusive disease (VOD). Elevated levels of bilirubin, hepatomegaly and fluid retention are clinical hallmarks of this condition. There is now a greater appreciation of the generalized cellular injury and obstruction in hepatic vein sinuses, and hepatic VOD has lately been referred to as sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (SOS). Severe cases of SOS are associated with a high mortality rate. Anticoagulants or defibrotide may be effective in reducing the severity of VOD but may also increase bleeding complications. Ursodiol has been shown to help prevent VOD, presumably by facilitating the flow of bile.

The injury of the mucosal lining of the mouth and throat is a common regimen-related toxicity following ablative HSCT regimens. It is usually not life-threatening but is very painful, and prevents eating and drinking. Mucositis is treated with pain medications plus intravenous infusions to prevent dehydration and malnutrition.

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is an inflammatory disease that is unique to allogeneic transplantation. It is an attack of the "new" bone marrow's immune cells against the recipient's tissues. This can occur even if the donor and recipient are HLA-identical because the immune system can still recognize other differences between their tissues. It is aptly named graft-versus-host disease because bone marrow transplantation is the only transplant procedure in which the transplanted cells must accept the body rather than the body accepting the new cells.[27]

Acute graft-versus-host disease typically occurs in the first 3 months after transplantation and may involve the skin, intestine, or the liver. High-dose corticosteroids such as prednisone are a standard treatment; however this immuno-suppressive treatment often leads to deadly infections. Chronic graft-versus-host disease may also develop after allogeneic transplant. It is the major source of late treatment-related complications, although it less often results in death. In addition to inflammation, chronic graft-versus-host disease may lead to the development of fibrosis, or scar tissue, similar to scleroderma; it may cause functional disability and require prolonged immunosuppressive therapy. Graft-versus-host disease is usually mediated by T cells, which react to foreign peptides presented on the MHC of the host.[citation needed]

Graft versus tumor effect (GVT) or "graft versus leukemia" effect is the beneficial aspect of the Graft-versus-Host phenomenon. For example, HSCT patients with either acute, or in particular chronic, graft-versus-host disease after an allogeneic transplant tend to have a lower risk of cancer relapse.[28][29] This is due to a therapeutic immune reaction of the grafted donor T lymphocytes against the diseased bone marrow of the recipient. This lower rate of relapse accounts for the increased success rate of allogeneic transplants, compared to transplants from identical twins, and indicates that allogeneic HSCT is a form of immunotherapy. GVT is the major benefit of transplants that do not employ the highest immuno-suppressive regimens.

Graft versus tumor is mainly beneficial in diseases with slow progress, e.g. chronic leukemia, low-grade lymphoma, and some cases multiple myeloma. However, it is less effective in rapidly growing acute leukemias.[30]

If cancer relapses after HSCT, another transplant can be performed, infusing the patient with a greater quantity of donor white blood cells (Donor lymphocyte infusion).[30]

Patients after HSCT are at a higher risk for oral carcinoma. Post-HSCT oral cancer may have more aggressive behavior with poorer prognosis, when compared to oral cancer in non-HSCT patients.[31]

Prognosis in HSCT varies widely dependent upon disease type, stage, stem cell source, HLA-matched status (for allogeneic HSCT) and conditioning regimen. A transplant offers a chance for cure or long-term remission if the inherent complications of graft versus host disease, immuno-suppressive treatments and the spectrum of opportunistic infections can be survived.[15][16] In recent years, survival rates have been gradually improving across almost all populations and sub-populations receiving transplants.[32]

Mortality for allogeneic stem cell transplantation can be estimated using the prediction model created by Sorror et al.,[33] using the Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation-Specific Comorbidity Index (HCT-CI). The HCT-CI was derived and validated by investigators at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (Seattle, WA). The HCT-CI modifies and adds to a well-validated comorbidity index, the Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) (Charlson et al.[34]) The CCI was previously applied to patients undergoing allogeneic HCT but appears to provide less survival prediction and discrimination than the HCT-CI scoring system.

The risks of a complication depend on patient characteristics, health care providers and the apheresis procedure, and the colony-stimulating factor used (G-CSF). G-CSF drugs include filgrastim (Neupogen, Neulasta), and lenograstim (Graslopin).

Filgrastim is typically dosed in the 10 microgram/kg level for 45 days during the harvesting of stem cells. The documented adverse effects of filgrastim include splenic rupture (indicated by left upper abdominal or shoulder pain, risk 1 in 40000), Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), alveolar hemorrage, and allergic reactions (usually expressed in first 30 minutes, risk 1 in 300).[35][36][37] In addition, platelet and hemoglobin levels dip post-procedure, not returning to normal until one month.[37]

The question of whether geriatrics (patients over 65) react the same as patients under 65 has not been sufficiently examined. Coagulation issues and inflammation of atherosclerotic plaques are known to occur as a result of G-CSF injection. G-CSF has also been described to induce genetic changes in mononuclear cells of normal donors.[36] There is evidence that myelodysplasia (MDS) or acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) can be induced by GCSF in susceptible individuals.[38]

Blood was drawn peripherally in a majority of patients, but a central line to jugular/subclavian/femoral veins may be used in 16 percent of women and 4 percent of men. Adverse reactions during apheresis were experienced in 20 percent of women and 8 percent of men, these adverse events primarily consisted of numbness/tingling, multiple line attempts, and nausea.[37]

A study involving 2408 donors (1860 years) indicated that bone pain (primarily back and hips) as a result of filgrastim treatment is observed in 80 percent of donors by day 4 post-injection.[37] This pain responded to acetaminophen or ibuprofen in 65 percent of donors and was characterized as mild to moderate in 80 percent of donors and severe in 10 percent.[37] Bone pain receded post-donation to 26 percent of patients 2 days post-donation, 6 percent of patients one week post-donation, and <2 percent 1 year post-donation. Donation is not recommended for those with a history of back pain.[37] Other symptoms observed in more than 40 percent of donors include myalgia, headache, fatigue, and insomnia.[37] These symptoms all returned to baseline 1 month post-donation, except for some cases of persistent fatigue in 3 percent of donors.[37]

In one metastudy that incorporated data from 377 donors, 44 percent of patients reported having adverse side effects after peripheral blood HSCT.[38] Side effects included pain prior to the collection procedure as a result of GCSF injections, post-procedural generalized skeletal pain, fatigue and reduced energy.[38]

A study that surveyed 2408 donors found that serious adverse events (requiring prolonged hospitalization) occurred in 15 donors (at a rate of 0.6 percent), although none of these events were fatal.[37] Donors were not observed to have higher than normal rates of cancer with up to 48 years of follow up.[37] One study based on a survey of medical teams covered approximately 24,000 peripheral blood HSCT cases between 1993 and 2005, and found a serious cardiovascular adverse reaction rate of about 1 in 1500.[36] This study reported a cardiovascular-related fatality risk within the first 30 days HSCT of about 2 in 10000. For this same group, severe cardiovascular events were observed with a rate of about 1 in 1500. The most common severe adverse reactions were pulmonary edema/deep vein thrombosis, splenic rupture, and myocardial infarction. Haematological malignancy induction was comparable to that observed in the general population, with only 15 reported cases within 4 years.[36]

Georges Math, a French oncologist, performed the first European bone marrow transplant in November 1958 on five Yugoslavian nuclear workers whose own marrow had been damaged by irradiation caused by a criticality accident at the Vina Nuclear Institute, but all of these transplants were rejected.[39][40][41][42][43] Math later pioneered the use of bone marrow transplants in the treatment of leukemia.[43]

Stem cell transplantation was pioneered using bone-marrow-derived stem cells by a team at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center from the 1950s through the 1970s led by E. Donnall Thomas, whose work was later recognized with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Thomas' work showed that bone marrow cells infused intravenously could repopulate the bone marrow and produce new blood cells. His work also reduced the likelihood of developing a life-threatening complication called graft-versus-host disease.[44]

The first physician to perform a successful human bone marrow transplant on a disease other than cancer was Robert A. Good at the University of Minnesota in 1968.[45] In 1975, John Kersey, M.D., also of the University of Minnesota, performed the first successful bone marrow transplant to cure lymphoma. His patient, a 16-year-old-boy, is today the longest-living lymphoma transplant survivor.[46]

At the end of 2012, 20.2 million people had registered their willingness to be a bone marrow donor with one of the 67 registries from 49 countries participating in Bone Marrow Donors Worldwide. 17.9 million of these registered donors had been ABDR typed, allowing easy matching. A further 561,000 cord blood units had been received by one of 46 cord blood banks from 30 countries participating. The highest total number of bone marrow donors registered were those from the USA (8.0 million), and the highest number per capita were those from Cyprus (15.4 percent of the population).[47]

Within the United States, racial minority groups are the least likely to be registered and therefore the least likely to find a potentially life-saving match. In 1990, only six African-Americans were able to find a bone marrow match, and all six had common European genetic signatures.[48]

Africans are more genetically diverse than people of European descent, which means that more registrations are needed to find a match. Bone marrow and cord blood banks exist in South Africa, and a new program is beginning in Nigeria.[48] Many people belonging to different races are requested to donate as there is a shortage of donors in African, Mixed race, Latino, Aboriginal, and many other communities.

In 2007, a team of doctors in Berlin, Germany, including Gero Htter, performed a stem cell transplant for leukemia patient Timothy Ray Brown, who was also HIV-positive.[49] From 60 matching donors, they selected a [CCR5]-32 homozygous individual with two genetic copies of a rare variant of a cell surface receptor. This genetic trait confers resistance to HIV infection by blocking attachment of HIV to the cell. Roughly one in 1000 people of European ancestry have this inherited mutation, but it is rarer in other populations.[50][51] The transplant was repeated a year later after a leukemia relapse. Over three years after the initial transplant, and despite discontinuing antiretroviral therapy, researchers cannot detect HIV in the transplant recipient's blood or in various biopsies of his tissues.[52] Levels of HIV-specific antibodies have also declined, leading to speculation that the patient may have been functionally cured of HIV. However, scientists emphasise that this is an unusual case.[53] Potentially fatal transplant complications (the "Berlin patient" suffered from graft-versus-host disease and leukoencephalopathy) mean that the procedure could not be performed in others with HIV, even if sufficient numbers of suitable donors were found.[54][55]

In 2012, Daniel Kuritzkes reported results of two stem cell transplants in patients with HIV. They did not, however, use donors with the 32 deletion. After their transplant procedures, both were put on antiretroviral therapies, during which neither showed traces of HIV in their blood plasma and purified CD4 T cells using a sensitive culture method (less than 3 copies/mL). However, the virus was once again detected in both patients some time after the discontinuation of therapy.[56]

Since McAllister's 1997 report on a patient with multiple sclerosis (MS) who received a bone marrow transplant for CML,[57] over 600 reports have been published describing HSCTs performed primarily for MS.[58] These have been shown to "reduce or eliminate ongoing clinical relapses, halt further progression, and reduce the burden of disability in some patients" that have aggressive highly active MS, "in the absence of chronic treatment with disease-modifying agents".[58]

Clincs performing HSCT includes Northwestern University and Karolinska University Hospital.

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Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation - Wikipedia

The medical genetics of Jews is the study, screening, and treatment of genetic disorders more common in particular Jewish populations than in the population as a whole.[1] The genetics of Ashkenazi Jews have been particularly well-studied, resulting in the discovery of many genetic disorders associated with this ethnic group. In contrast, the medical genetics of Sephardic Jews and Mizrahi Jews are more complicated, since they are more genetically diverse and consequently no genetic disorders are more common in these groups as a whole; instead, they tend to have the genetic diseases common in their various countries of origin.[1][2] Several organizations, such as Dor Yeshorim,[3] offer screening for Ashkenazi genetic diseases, and these screening programs have had a significant impact, in particular by reducing the number of cases of TaySachs disease.[4]

Different ethnic groups tend to suffer from different rates of hereditary diseases, with some being more common, and some less common. Hereditary diseases, particularly hemophilia, were recognized early in Jewish history, even being described in the Talmud.[5] However, the scientific study of hereditary disease in Jewish populations was initially hindered by scientific racism, which is based on racial supremacism.[6][7]

However, modern studies on the genetics of particular ethnic groups have the tightly defined purpose of avoiding the birth of children with genetic diseases, or identifying people at particular risk of developing a disease in the future.[6] Consequently, the Jewish community has been very supportive of modern genetic testing programs, although this unusually high degree of cooperation has raised concerns that it might lead to the false perception that Jews are more susceptible to genetic diseases than other groups of people.[5]

However, most populations contain hundreds of alleles that could potentially cause disease and most people are heterozygotes for one or two recessive alleles that would be lethal in a homozygote.[8] Although the overall frequency of disease-causing alleles does not vary much between populations, the practice of consanguineous marriage (marriage between second cousins or closer relatives) is common in some Jewish communities, which produces a small increase in the number of children with congenital defects.[9]

According to Daphna Birenbaum Carmeli at the University of Haifa, Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations because:[10]

The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Carmeli writes, "Jews are over-represented in human genetic literature, particularly in mutation-related contexts."[10] Another factor that may aid genetic research in this community is that Jewish culture results in excellent medical care, which is coupled to a strong interest in the community's history and demography.[11]

This set of advantages have led to Ashkenazi Jews in particular being used in many genetic studies, not just in the study of genetic diseases. For example, a series of publications on Ashkenazi centenarians established their longevity was strongly inherited and associated with lower rates of age-related diseases.[12] This "healthy aging" phenotype may be due to higher levels of telomerase in these individuals.[13]

The most detailed genetic analysis study of Ashkenazi was published in September 2014 by Shai Carmon and his team at Columbia University. The results of the detailed study show that today's 10 million Ashkenazi Jews descend from a population of only 350 individuals who lived about 600800 years ago. That population derived from both Europe and the Middle East.[14] There is evidence that the population bottleneck may have allowed deleterious alleles to become more prevalent in the population due to genetic drift.[15] As a result, this group has been particularly intensively studied, so many mutations have been identified as common in Ashkenazis.[16] Of these diseases, many also occur in other Jewish groups and in non-Jewish populations, although the specific mutation which causes the disease may vary between populations. For example, two different mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene causes Gaucher's disease in Ashkenazis, which is their most common genetic disease, but only one of these mutations is found in non-Jewish groups.[4] A few diseases are unique to this group; for example, familial dysautonomia is almost unknown in other populations.[4]

TaySachs disease, which can present as a fatal illness of children that causes mental deterioration prior to death, was historically more prevalent among Ashkenazi Jews,[18] although high levels of the disease are also found in some Pennsylvania Dutch, southern Louisiana Cajun, and eastern Quebec French Canadian populations.[19] Since the 1970s, however, proactive genetic testing has been quite effective in eliminating TaySachs from the Ashkenazi Jewish population.[20]

Gaucher's disease, in which lipids accumulate in inappropriate locations, occurs most frequently among Ashkenazi Jews;[21] the mutation is carried by roughly one in every 15 Ashkenazi Jews, compared to one in 100 of the general American population.[22] Gaucher's disease can cause brain damage and seizures, but these effects are not usually present in the form manifested among Ashkenazi Jews; while sufferers still bruise easily, and it can still potentially rupture the spleen, it generally has only a minor impact on life expectancy.

Ashkenazi Jews are also highly affected by other lysosomal storage diseases, particularly in the form of lipid storage disorders. Compared to other ethnic groups, they more frequently act as carriers of mucolipidosis[23] and NiemannPick disease,[24] the latter of which can prove fatal.

The occurrence of several lysosomal storage disorders in the same population suggests the alleles responsible might have conferred some selective advantage in the past.[25] This would be similar to the hemoglobin allele which is responsible for sickle-cell disease, but solely in people with two copies; those with just one copy of the allele have a sickle cell trait and gain partial immunity to malaria as a result. This effect is called heterozygote advantage.[26]

Some of these disorders may have become common in this population due to selection for high levels of intelligence (see Ashkenazi intelligence).[27][28] However, other research suggests no difference is found between the frequency of this group of diseases and other genetic diseases in Ashkenazis, which is evidence against any specific selectivity towards lysosomal disorders.[29]

Familial dysautonomia (RileyDay syndrome), which causes vomiting, speech problems, an inability to cry, and false sensory perception, is almost exclusive to Ashkenazi Jews;[30] Ashkenazi Jews are almost 100 times more likely to carry the disease than anyone else.[31]

Diseases inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern often occur in endogamous populations. Among Ashkenazi Jews, a higher incidence of specific genetic disorders and hereditary diseases have been verified, including:

In contrast to the Ashkenazi population, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews are much more divergent groups, with ancestors from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Italy, Libya, the Balkans, Iran, Iraq, India, and Yemen, with specific genetic disorders found in each regional group, or even in specific subpopulations in these regions.[1]

One of the first genetic testing programs to identify heterozygote carriers of a genetic disorder was a program aimed at eliminating TaySachs disease. This program began in 1970, and over one million people have now been screened for the mutation.[50] Identifying carriers and counseling couples on reproductive options have had a large impact on the incidence of the disease, with a decrease from 4050 per year worldwide to only four or five per year.[4] Screening programs now test for several genetic disorders in Jews, although these focus on the Ashkenazi Jews, since other Jewish groups cannot be given a single set of tests for a common set of disorders.[2] In the USA, these screening programs have been widely accepted by the Ashkenazi community, and have greatly reduced the frequency of the disorders.[51]

Prenatal testing for several genetic diseases is offered as commercial panels for Ashkenazi couples by both CIGNA and Quest Diagnostics. The CIGNA panel is available for testing for parental/preconception screening or following chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia, Gaucher disease, mucolipidosis IV, Neimann-Pick disease type A, Tay-Sachs disease, and torsion dystonia. The Quest panel is for parental/preconception testing and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia group C, Gaucher disease, Neimann-Pick disease types A and B and Tay-Sachs disease.

The official recommendations of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is that Ashkenazi individuals be offered screening for Tay Sachs, Canavan, cystic fibrosis, and familial dysautonomia as part of routine obstetrical care.[52]

In the orthodox community, an organization called Dor Yeshorim carries out anonymous genetic screening of couples before marriage to reduce the risk of children with genetic diseases being born.[53] The program educates young people on medical genetics and screens school-aged children for any disease genes. These results are then entered into an anonymous database, identified only by a unique ID number given to the person who was tested. If two people are considering getting married, they call the organization and tell them their ID numbers. The organization then tells them if they are genetically compatible. It is not divulged if one member is a carrier, so as to protect the carrier and his or her family from stigmatization.[53] However, this program has been criticized for exerting social pressure on people to be tested, and for screening for a broad range of recessive genes, including disorders such as Gaucher's disease.[3]

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Medical genetics of Jews - Wikipedia

Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.[1]

There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which are also known as white fat and brown fat, respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells. Most recently, the presence of beige adipocytes with a gene expression pattern distinct from either white or brown adipocytes has been described.

White fat cells or monovacuolar cells contain a large lipid droplet surrounded by a layer of cytoplasm. The nucleus is flattened and located on the periphery. A typical fat cell is 0.1mm in diameter with some being twice that size and others half that size. The fat stored is in a semi-liquid state, and is composed primarily of triglycerides and cholesteryl ester. White fat cells secrete many proteins acting as adipokines such as resistin, adiponectin, leptin and apelin. An average human adult has 30 billion fat cells with a weight of 30lbs or 13.5kg. If excess weight is gained as an adult, fat cells increase in size about fourfold before dividing and increasing the absolute number of fat cells present.[2]

Brown fat cells or plurivacuolar cells are polygonal in shape. Unlike white fat cells, these cells have considerable cytoplasm, with lipid droplets scattered throughout. The nucleus is round, and, although eccentrically located, it is not in the periphery of the cell. The brown color comes from the large quantity of mitochondria. Brown fat, also known as "baby fat," is used to generate heat.

Pre-adipocytes are undifferentiated fibroblasts that can be stimulated to form adipocytes. Recent studies shed light into potential molecular mechanisms in the fate determination of pre-adipocytes although the exact lineage of adipocyte is still unclear.[3][4] The variation of body fat distribution resulting from normal growth is influenced by nutritional and hormonal status in dependence on intrinsic differences in cells found in each adipose depot.[5]

Mesenchymal stem cells can differentiate into adipocytes, connective tissue, muscle or bone.[1]

The term "lipoblast" is used to describe the precursor of the adult cell. The term "lipoblastoma" is used to describe a tumor of this cell type.[6]

Even after marked weight loss, the body never loses adipocytes.[citation needed]As a rule, to facilitate changes in weight, the adipocytes in the body merely gain or lose fat content. However, if the adipocytes in the body reach their maximum capacity of fat, they may replicate to allow additional fat storage.

Adult rats of various strains became obese when they were fed a highly palatable diet for several months. Analysis of their adipose tissue morphology revealed increases in both adipocyte size and number in most depots. Reintroduction of an ordinary chow diet[clarification needed] to such animals precipitated a period of weight loss during which only mean adipocyte size returned to normal. Adipocyte number remained at the elevated level achieved during the period of weight gain.[7]

In some reports and textbooks, the number of adipocytes can increase in childhood and adolescence, though the amount is usually constant in adults. Interestingly, individuals who become obese as adults, rather than as adolescents, have no more adipocytes than they had before.[8]

People who have been fat since childhood generally have an inflated number of fat cells. People who become fat as adults may have no more fat cells than their lean peers, but their fat cells are larger. In general, people with an excess of fat cells find it harder to lose weight and keep it off than the obese who simply have enlarged fat cells.[9]

According to research by Tchoukalova et al., 2010, body fat cells could have regional responses to the overfeeding that was studied in adult subjects. In the upper body, an increase of adipocyte size correlated with upper-body fat gain; however, the number of fat cells was not significantly changed. In contrast to the upper body fat cell response, the number of lower-body adipocytes did significantly increase during the course of experiment. Notably, there was no change in the size of the lower-body adipocytes.[10]

Approximately 10% of fat cells are renewed annually at all adult ages and levels of body mass index without a significant increase in the overall number of adipocytes in adulthood.[8]

Obesity is characterized by the expansion of fat mass, through adipocyte size increase (hypertrophy) and, to a lesser extent, cell proliferation (hyperplasia).[11] In the fat cells of obese individuals, there is increased production of metabolism modulators, such as glycerol, hormones, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to the development of insulin resistance.[12]

Fat production in adipocytes is strongly stimulated by insulin. By controlling the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase and the acetyl-CoA carboxylase enzymes, insulin promotes unsaturated fatty acid synthesis. It also promotes glucose uptake and induces SREBF1, which activates the transcription of genes that stimulate lipogenesis.[13]

SREBF1 (sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1) is a transcription factor synthesized as an inactive precursor protein inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane by two membrane-spanning helices. Also anchored in the ER membrane is SCAP (SREBF-cleavage activating protein), which binds SREBF1. The SREBF1-SCAP complex is retained in the ER membrane by INSIG1 (insulin-induced gene 1 protein). When sterol levels are depleted, INSIG1 releases SCAP and the SREBF1-SCAP complex can be sorted into COPII-coated transport vesicles that are exported to the Golgi. In the Golgi, SREBF1 is cleaved and released as a transcriptionally active mature protein. It is then free to translocate to the nucleus and activate the expression of its target genes.

[14]

Clinical studies have repeatedly shown that even though insulin resistance is usually associated with obesity, the membrane phospholipids of the adipocytes of obese patients generally still show an increased degree of fatty acid unsaturation.[15] This seems to point to an adaptive mechanism that allows the adipocyte to maintain its functionality, despite the increased storage demands associated with obesity and insulin resistance.

A study conducted in 2013[15] found that, while INSIG1 and SREBF1 mRNA expression was decreased in the adipose tissue of obese mice and humans, the amount of active SREBF1 was increased in comparison with normal mice and non-obese patients. This downregulation of INSIG1 expression combined with the increase of mature SREBF1 was also correlated with the maintenance of SREBF1-target gene expression. Hence, it appears that, by downregulating INSIG1, there is a resetting of the INSIG1/SREBF1 loop, allowing for the maintenance of active SREBF1 levels. This seems to help compensate for the anti-lipogenic effects of insulin resistance and thus preserve adipocyte fat storage abilities and availability of appropriate levels of fatty acid unsaturation in face of the nutritional pressures of obesity.

Adipocytes can synthesize estrogens from androgens,[16] potentially being the reason why being underweight or overweight are risk factors for infertility.[17] Additionally, adipocytes are responsible for the production of the hormone leptin. Leptin is important in regulation of appetite and acts as a satiety factor.[18]

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What Is Personalized Medicine?

Life extension science, also known as anti-aging medicine, indefinite life extension, experimental gerontology, and biomedical gerontology, is the study of slowing down or reversing the processes of aging to extend both the maximum and average lifespan. Some researchers in this area, and "life extensionists", "immortalists" or "longevists" (those who wish to achieve longer lives themselves), believe that future breakthroughs in tissue rejuvenation, stem cells, regenerative medicine, molecular repair, gene therapy, pharmaceuticals, and organ replacement (such as with artificial organs or xenotransplantations) will eventually enable humans to have indefinite lifespans (agerasia[1]) through complete rejuvenation to a healthy youthful condition.

The sale of purported anti-aging products such as nutrition, physical fitness, skin care, hormone replacements, vitamins, supplements and herbs is a lucrative global industry, with the US market generating about $50billion of revenue each year.[2] Some medical experts state that the use of such products has not been proven to affect the aging process and many claims regarding the efficacy of these marketed products have been roundly criticized by medical experts, including the American Medical Association.[2][3][4][5][6]

The ethical ramifications of life extension are debated by bioethicists.

During the process of aging, an organism accumulates damage to its macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs. Specifically, aging is characterized as and thought to be caused by "genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication."[7]Oxidation damage to cellular contents caused by free radicals is believed to contribute to aging as well.[8][8][9]

The longest a human has ever been proven to live is 122 years, the case of Jeanne Calment who was born in 1875 and died in 1997, whereas the maximum lifespan of a wildtype mouse, commonly used as a model in research on aging, is about three years.[10] Genetic differences between humans and mice that may account for these different aging rates include differences in efficiency of DNA repair, antioxidant defenses, energy metabolism, proteostasis maintenance, and recycling mechanisms such as autophagy.[11]

Average lifespan in a population is lowered by infant and child mortality, which are frequently linked to infectious diseases or nutrition problems. Later in life, vulnerability to accidents and age-related chronic disease such as cancer or cardiovascular disease play an increasing role in mortality. Extension of expected lifespan can often be achieved by access to improved medical care, vaccinations, good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking.

Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes and by environmental factors. Widely recognized methods of extending maximum lifespan in model organisms such as nematodes, fruit flies, and mice include caloric restriction, gene manipulation, and administration of pharmaceuticals.[12] Another technique uses evolutionary pressures such as breeding from only older members or altering levels of extrinsic mortality.[13][14] Some animals such as hydra, planarian flatworms, and certain sponges, corals, and jellyfish do not die of old age and exhibit potential immortality.[15][16][17][18]

Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan in humans could be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues, reversal of harmful epigenetic changes, or the enhancement of telomerase enzyme activity.[19][20]

Research geared towards life extension strategies in various organisms is currently under way at a number of academic and private institutions. Since 2009, investigators have found ways to increase the lifespan of nematode worms and yeast by 10-fold; the record in nematodes was achieved through genetic engineering and the extension in yeast by a combination of genetic engineering and caloric restriction.[21] A 2009 review of longevity research noted: "Extrapolation from worms to mammals is risky at best, and it cannot be assumed that interventions will result in comparable life extension factors. Longevity gains from dietary restriction, or from mutations studied previously, yield smaller benefits to Drosophila than to nematodes, and smaller still to mammals. This is not unexpected, since mammals have evolved to live many times the worm's lifespan, and humans live nearly twice as long as the next longest-lived primate. From an evolutionary perspective, mammals and their ancestors have already undergone several hundred million years of natural selection favoring traits that could directly or indirectly favor increased longevity, and may thus have already settled on gene sequences that promote lifespan. Moreover, the very notion of a "life-extension factor" that could apply across taxa presumes a linear response rarely seen in biology."[21]

Much life extension research focuses on nutritiondiets or supplementsas a means to extend lifespan, although few of these have been systematically tested for significant longevity effects. The many diets promoted by anti-aging advocates are often contradictory.[original research?] A dietary pattern with some support from scientific research is caloric restriction.[22][23]

Preliminary studies of caloric restriction on humans using surrogate measurements have provided evidence that caloric restriction may have powerful protective effect against secondary aging in humans. Caloric restriction in humans may reduce the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis.[24]

The free-radical theory of aging suggests that antioxidant supplements, such as vitaminC, vitaminE, Q10, lipoic acid, carnosine, and N-acetylcysteine, might extend human life. However, combined evidence from several clinical trials suggest that -carotene supplements and high doses of vitaminE increase mortality rates.[25]Resveratrol is a sirtuin stimulant that has been shown to extend life in animal models, but the effect of resveratrol on lifespan in humans is unclear as of 2011.[26]

There are many traditional herbs purportedly used to extend the health-span, including a Chinese tea called Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum), dubbed "China's Immortality Herb."[27]Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, describes a class of longevity herbs called rasayanas, including Bacopa monnieri, Ocimum sanctum, Curcuma longa, Centella asiatica, Phyllanthus emblica, Withania somnifera and many others.[27]

The anti-aging industry offers several hormone therapies. Some of these have been criticized for possible dangers to the patient and a lack of proven effect. For example, the American Medical Association has been critical of some anti-aging hormone therapies.[2]

Although some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose growth hormone (GH) treatment for adults with GH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters (i.e. decrease of LDL cholesterol), and affects the quality of life without significant side effects,[28][29][30] the evidence for use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy is mixed and based on animal studies. There are mixed reports that GH or IGF-1 signaling modulates the aging process in humans and about whether the direction of its effect is positive or negative.[31]

Some critics dispute the portrayal of aging as a disease. For example, Leonard Hayflick, who determined that fibroblasts are limited to around 50cell divisions, reasons that aging is an unavoidable consequence of entropy. Hayflick and fellow biogerontologists Jay Olshansky and Bruce Carnes have strongly criticized the anti-aging industry in response to what they see as unscrupulous profiteering from the sale of unproven anti-aging supplements.[4]

Politics relevant to the substances of life extension pertain mostly to communications and availability.[citation needed]

In the United States, product claims on food and drug labels are strictly regulated. The First Amendment (freedom of speech) protects third-party publishers' rights to distribute fact, opinion and speculation on life extension practices. Manufacturers and suppliers also provide informational publications, but because they market the substances, they are subject to monitoring and enforcement by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which polices claims by marketers. What constitutes the difference between truthful and false claims is hotly debated and is a central controversy in this arena.[citation needed]

Research by Sobh and Martin (2011) suggests that people buy anti-aging products to obtain a hoped-for self (e.g., keeping a youthful skin) or to avoid a feared-self (e.g., looking old). The research shows that when consumers pursue a hoped-for self, it is expectations of success that most strongly drive their motivation to use the product. The research also shows why doing badly when trying to avoid a feared self is more motivating than doing well. Interestingly, when product use is seen to fail it is more motivating than success when consumers seek to avoid a feared-self.[32]

The best-characterized anti-aging therapy was, and still is, CR. In some studies calorie restriction has been shown to extend the life of mice, yeast, and rhesus monkeys significantly.[33][34] However, a more recent study has shown that in contrast, calorie restriction has not improved the survival rate in rhesus monkeys.[35] Long-term human trials of CR are now being done. It is the hope of the anti-aging researchers that resveratrol, found in grapes, or pterostilbene, a more bio-available substance, found in blueberries, as well as rapamycin, a biotic substance discovered on Easter Island, may act as CR mimetics to increase the life span of humans.[36]

More recent work reveals that the effects long attributed to caloric restriction may be obtained by restriction of protein alone, and specifically of just the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine.[37][38] Current research is into the metabolic pathways affected by variation in availability of products of these amino acids.

There are a number of chemicals intended to slow the aging process currently being studied in animal models.[39] One type of research is related to the observed effects a calorie restriction (CR) diet, which has been shown to extend lifespan in some animals[40] Based on that research, there have been attempts to develop drugs that will have the same effect on the aging process as a caloric restriction diet, which are known as Caloric restriction mimetic drugs. Some drugs that are already approved for other uses have been studied for possible longevity effects on laboratory animals because of a possible CR-mimic effect; they include rapamycin,[41]metformin and other geroprotectors.[42]MitoQ, Resveratrol and pterostilbene are dietary supplements that have also been studied in this context.[36][43][44]

Other attempts to create anti-aging drugs have taken different research paths. One notable direction of research has been research into the possibility of using the enzyme telomerase in order to counter the process of telomere shortening.[45] However, there are potential dangers in this, since some research has also linked telomerase to cancer and to tumor growth and formation.[46]

Future advances in nanomedicine could give rise to life extension through the repair of many processes thought to be responsible for aging. K. Eric Drexler, one of the founders of nanotechnology, postulated cell repair machines, including ones operating within cells and utilizing as yet hypothetical molecular computers, in his 1986 book Engines of Creation. Raymond Kurzweil, a futurist and transhumanist, stated in his book The Singularity Is Near that he believes that advanced medical nanorobotics could completely remedy the effects of aging by 2030.[47] According to Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a medical use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see nanotechnology). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "swallow the doctor". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.[48]

Some life extensionists suggest that therapeutic cloning and stem cell research could one day provide a way to generate cells, body parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice.[49] Complex biological structures, such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been replicated. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed due to rejection and the inability to restore nerve connections. As of 2006, the implantation of bio-engineered bladders grown from patients' own cells has proven to be a viable treatment for bladder disease.[50] Proponents of body part replacement and cloning contend that the required biotechnologies are likely to appear earlier than other life-extension technologies.

The use of human stem cells, particularly embryonic stem cells, is controversial. Opponents' objections generally are based on interpretations of religious teachings or ethical considerations. Proponents of stem cell research point out that cells are routinely formed and destroyed in a variety of contexts. Use of stem cells taken from the umbilical cord or parts of the adult body may not provoke controversy.[51]

The controversies over cloning are similar, except general public opinion in most countries stands in opposition to reproductive cloning. Some proponents of therapeutic cloning predict the production of whole bodies, lacking consciousness, for eventual brain transplantation.

Replacement of biological (susceptible to diseases) organs with mechanical ones could extend life. This is the goal of 2045 Initiative.[52]

For cryonicists (advocates of cryopreservation), storing the body at low temperatures after death may provide an "ambulance" into a future in which advanced medical technologies may allow resuscitation and repair. They speculate cryogenic temperatures will minimize changes in biological tissue for many years, giving the medical community ample time to cure all disease, rejuvenate the aged and repair any damage that is caused by the cryopreservation process.

Many cryonicists do not believe that legal death is "real death" because stoppage of heartbeat and breathingthe usual medical criteria for legal deathoccur before biological death of cells and tissues of the body. Even at room temperature, cells may take hours to die and days to decompose. Although neurological damage occurs within 46 minutes of cardiac arrest, the irreversible neurodegenerative processes do not manifest for hours.[53] Cryonicists state that rapid cooling and cardio-pulmonary support applied immediately after certification of death can preserve cells and tissues for long-term preservation at cryogenic temperatures. People, particularly children, have survived up to an hour without heartbeat after submersion in ice water. In one case, full recovery was reported after 45 minutes underwater.[54] To facilitate rapid preservation of cells and tissue, cryonics "standby teams" are available to wait by the bedside of patients who are to be cryopreserved to apply cooling and cardio-pulmonary support as soon as possible after declaration of death.[55]

No mammal has been successfully cryopreserved and brought back to life, with the exception of frozen human embryos. Resuscitation of a postembryonic human from cryonics is not possible with current science. Some scientists still support the idea based on their expectations of the capabilities of future science.[56][57]

Another proposed life extension technology would combine existing and predicted future biochemical and genetic techniques. SENS proposes that rejuvenation may be obtained by removing aging damage via the use of stem cells and tissue engineering, telomere-lengthening machinery, allotopic expression of mitochondrial proteins, targeted ablation of cells, immunotherapeutic clearance, and novel lysosomal hydrolases.[58]

While many biogerontologists find these ideas "worthy of discussion"[59][60] and SENS conferences feature important research in the field,[61][62] some contend that the alleged benefits are too speculative given the current state of technology, referring to it as "fantasy rather than science".[3][5]

Gene therapy, in which nucleic acid polymers are delivered as a drug and are either expressed as proteins, interfere with the expression of proteins, or correct genetic mutations, has been proposed as a future strategy to prevent aging.[63][64]

A large array of genetic modifications have been found to increase lifespan in model organisms such as yeast, nematode worms, fruit flies, and mice. As of 2013, the longest extension of life caused by a single gene manipulation was roughly 150% in mice and 10-fold in nematode worms.[65]

In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins describes an approach to life-extension that involves "fooling genes" into thinking the body is young.[66] Dawkins attributes inspiration for this idea to Peter Medawar. The basic idea is that our bodies are composed of genes that activate throughout our lifetimes, some when we are young and others when we are older. Presumably, these genes are activated by environmental factors, and the changes caused by these genes activating can be lethal. It is a statistical certainty that we possess more lethal genes that activate in later life than in early life. Therefore, to extend life, we should be able to prevent these genes from switching on, and we should be able to do so by "identifying changes in the internal chemical environment of a body that take place during aging... and by simulating the superficial chemical properties of a young body".[67]

According to some lines of thinking, the ageing process is routed into a basic reduction of biological complexity,[68] and thus loss of information. In order to reverse this loss, gerontologist Marios Kyriazis suggested that it is necessary to increase input of actionable and meaningful information both individually (into individual brains),[69] and collectively (into societal systems).[70] This technique enhances overall biological function through up-regulation of immune, hormonal, antioxidant and other parameters, resulting in improved age-repair mechanisms. Working in parallel with natural evolutionary mechanisms that can facilitate survival through increased fitness, Kryiazis claims that the technique may lead to a reduction of the rate of death as a function of age, i.e. indefinite lifespan.[71]

One hypothetical future strategy that, as some suggest, "eliminates" the complications related to a physical body, involves the copying or transferring (e.g. by progressively replacing neurons with transistors) of a conscious mind from a biological brain to a non-biological computer system or computational device. The basic idea is to scan the structure of a particular brain in detail, and then construct a software model of it that is so faithful to the original that, when run on appropriate hardware, it will behave in essentially the same way as the original brain.[72] Whether or not an exact copy of one's mind constitutes actual life extension is matter of debate.

The extension of life has been a desire of humanity and a mainstay motif in the history of scientific pursuits and ideas throughout history, from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh and the Egyptian Smith medical papyrus, all the way through the Taoists, Ayurveda practitioners, alchemists, hygienists such as Luigi Cornaro, Johann Cohausen and Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, and philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Ren Descartes, Benjamin Franklin and Nicolas Condorcet. However, the beginning of the modern period in this endeavor can be traced to the end of the 19th beginning of the 20th century, to the so-called fin-de-sicle (end of the century) period, denoted as an end of an epoch and characterized by the rise of scientific optimism and therapeutic activism, entailing the pursuit of life extension (or life-extensionism). Among the foremost researchers of life extension at this period were the Nobel Prize winning biologist Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) -- the author of the cell theory of immunity and vice director of Institut Pasteur in Paris, and Charles-douard Brown-Squard (1817-1894) -- the president of the French Biological Society and one of the founders of modern endocrinology.[73]

Sociologist James Hughes claims that science has been tied to a cultural narrative of conquering death since the Age of Enlightenment. He cites Francis Bacon (15611626) as an advocate of using science and reason to extend human life, noting Bacon's novel New Atlantis, wherein scientists worked toward delaying aging and prolonging life. Robert Boyle (16271691), founding member of the Royal Society, also hoped that science would make substantial progress with life extension, according to Hughes, and proposed such experiments as "to replace the blood of the old with the blood of the young". Biologist Alexis Carrel (18731944) was inspired by a belief in indefinite human lifespan that he developed after experimenting with cells, says Hughes.[74]

In 1970, the American Aging Association was formed under the impetus of Denham Harman, originator of the free radical theory of aging. Harman wanted an organization of biogerontologists that was devoted to research and to the sharing of information among scientists interested in extending human lifespan.

In 1976, futurists Joel Kurtzman and Philip Gordon wrote No More Dying. The Conquest Of Aging And The Extension Of Human Life, (ISBN 0-440-36247-4) the first popular book on research to extend human lifespan. Subsequently, Kurtzman was invited to testify before the House Select Committee on Aging, chaired by Claude Pepper of Florida, to discuss the impact of life extension on the Social Security system.

Saul Kent published The Life Extension Revolution (ISBN 0-688-03580-9) in 1980 and created a nutraceutical firm called the Life Extension Foundation, a non-profit organization that promotes dietary supplements. The Life Extension Foundation publishes a periodical called Life Extension Magazine. The 1982 bestselling book Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach (ISBN 0-446-51229-X) by Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw further popularized the phrase "life extension".

In 1983, Roy Walford, a life-extensionist and gerontologist, published a popular book called Maximum Lifespan. In 1988, Walford and his student Richard Weindruch summarized their research into the ability of calorie restriction to extend the lifespan of rodents in The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction (ISBN 0-398-05496-7). It had been known since the work of Clive McCay in the 1930s that calorie restriction can extend the maximum lifespan of rodents. But it was the work of Walford and Weindruch that gave detailed scientific grounding to that knowledge.[citation needed] Walford's personal interest in life extension motivated his scientific work and he practiced calorie restriction himself. Walford died at the age of 80 from complications caused by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Money generated by the non-profit Life Extension Foundation allowed Saul Kent to finance the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, the world's largest cryonics organization. The cryonics movement had been launched in 1962 by Robert Ettinger's book, The Prospect of Immortality. In the 1960s, Saul Kent had been a co-founder of the Cryonics Society of New York. Alcor gained national prominence when baseball star Ted Williams was cryonically preserved by Alcor in 2002 and a family dispute arose as to whether Williams had really wanted to be cryopreserved.

Regulatory and legal struggles between the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Life Extension Foundation included seizure of merchandise and court action. In 1991, Saul Kent and Bill Faloon, the principals of the Foundation, were jailed. The LEF accused the FDA of perpetrating a "Holocaust" and "seeking gestapo-like power" through its regulation of drugs and marketing claims.[75]

In 2003, Doubleday published "The Immortal Cell: One Scientist's Quest to Solve the Mystery of Human Aging," by Michael D. West. West emphasised the potential role of embryonic stem cells in life extension.[76]

Other modern life extensionists include writer Gennady Stolyarov, who insists that death is "the enemy of us all, to be fought with medicine, science, and technology";[77]transhumanist philosopher Zoltan Istvan, who proposes that the "transhumanist must safeguard one's own existence above all else";[78] futurist George Dvorsky, who considers aging to be a problem that desperately needs to be solved;[79] and recording artist Steve Aoki, who has been called "one of the most prolific campaigners for life extension".[80]

In 1991, the American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine (A4M) was formed as a non-profit organization to create what it considered an anti-aging medical specialty distinct from geriatrics, and to hold trade shows for physicians interested in anti-aging medicine. The A4M trains doctors in anti-aging medicine and publicly promotes the field of anti-aging research. It has about 26,000 members, of whom about 97% are doctors and scientists.[81] The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes neither anti-aging medicine nor the A4M's professional standing.[82]

In 2003, Aubrey de Grey and David Gobel formed the Methuselah Foundation, which gives financial grants to anti-aging research projects. In 2009, de Grey and several others founded the SENS Research Foundation, a California-based scientific research organization which conducts research into aging and funds other anti-aging research projects at various universities.[83] In 2013, Google announced Calico, a new company based in San Francisco that will harness new technologies to increase scientific understanding of the biology of aging.[84] It is led by Arthur D. Levinson,[85] and its research team includes scientists such as Hal V. Barron, David Botstein, and Cynthia Kenyon. In 2014, biologist Craig Venter founded Human Longevity Inc., a company dedicated to scientific research to end aging through genomics and cell therapy. They received funding with the goal of compiling a comprehensive human genotype, microbiome, and phenotype database.[86]

Aside from private initiatives, aging research is being conducted in university laboratories, and includes universities such as Harvard and UCLA. University researchers have made a number of breakthroughs in extending the lives of mice and insects by reversing certain aspects of aging.[87][88][89][90]

Though many scientists state[91] that life extension and radical life extension are possible, there are still no international or national programs focused on radical life extension. There are political forces staying for and against life extension. By 2012, in Russia, the United States, Israel, and the Netherlands, the Longevity political parties started. They aimed to provide political support to radical life extension research and technologies, and ensure the fastest possible and at the same time soft transition of society to the next step life without aging and with radical life extension, and to provide access to such technologies to most currently living people.[92]

Leon Kass (chairman of the US President's Council on Bioethics from 2001 to 2005) has questioned whether potential exacerbation of overpopulation problems would make life extension unethical.[93] He states his opposition to life extension with the words:

"simply to covet a prolonged life span for ourselves is both a sign and a cause of our failure to open ourselves to procreation and to any higher purpose ... [The] desire to prolong youthfulness is not only a childish desire to eat one's life and keep it; it is also an expression of a childish and narcissistic wish incompatible with devotion to posterity."[94]

John Harris, former editor-in-chief of the Journal of Medical Ethics, argues that as long as life is worth living, according to the person himself, we have a powerful moral imperative to save the life and thus to develop and offer life extension therapies to those who want them.[95]

Transhumanist philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that any technological advances in life extension must be equitably distributed and not restricted to a privileged few.[96] In an extended metaphor entitled "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant", Bostrom envisions death as a monstrous dragon who demands human sacrifices. In the fable, after a lengthy debate between those who believe the dragon is a fact of life and those who believe the dragon can and should be destroyed, the dragon is finally killed. Bostrom argues that political inaction allowed many preventable human deaths to occur.[97]

Life extension is a controversial topic due to fear of overpopulation and possible effects on society.[98] Biogerontologist Aubrey De Grey counters the overpopulation critique by pointing out that the therapy could postpone or eliminate menopause, allowing women to space out their pregnancies over more years and thus decreasing the yearly population growth rate.[99] Moreover, the philosopher and futurist Max More argues that, given the fact the worldwide population growth rate is slowing down and is projected to eventually stabilize and begin falling, superlongevity would be unlikely to contribute to overpopulation.[98]

A Spring 2013 Pew Research poll in the United States found that 38% of Americans would want life extension treatments, and 56% would reject it. However, it also found that 68% believed most people would want it and that only 4% consider an "ideal lifespan" to be more than 120 years. The median "ideal lifespan" was 91 years of age and the majority of the public (63%) viewed medical advances aimed at prolonging life as generally good. 41% of Americans believed that radical life extension (RLE) would be good for society, while 51% said they believed it would be bad for society.[100] One possibility for why 56% of Americans claim they would reject life extension treatments may be due to the cultural perception that living longer would result in a longer period of decrepitude, and that the elderly in our current society are unhealthy.[101]

Religious people are no more likely to oppose life extension than the unaffiliated,[100] though some variation exists between religious denominations.

Most mainstream medical organizations and practitioners do not consider aging to be a disease. David Sinclair says: "Idon't see aging as a disease, but as a collection of quite predictable diseases caused by the deterioration of the body".[102] The two main arguments used are that aging is both inevitable and universal while diseases are not.[103] However, not everyone agrees. Harry R. Moody, Director of Academic Affairs for AARP, notes that what is normal and what is disease strongly depends on a historical context.[104] David Gems, Assistant Director of the Institute of Healthy Ageing, strongly argues that aging should be viewed as a disease.[105] In response to the universality of aging, David Gems notes that it is as misleading as arguing that Basenji are not dogs because they do not bark.[106] Because of the universality of aging he calls it a 'special sort of disease'. Robert M. Perlman, coined the terms aging syndrome and disease complex in 1954 to describe aging.[107]

The discussion whether aging should be viewed as a disease or not has important implications. It would stimulate pharmaceutical companies to develop life extension therapies and in the United States of America, it would also increase the regulation of the anti-aging market by the FDA. Anti-aging now falls under the regulations for cosmetic medicine which are less tight than those for drugs.[106][108]

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Life extension - Wikipedia

Diabetes specialists at Florida Hospital helps tens of thousands of people each year control and manage their diabetes. More astounding is that weve helped to eliminate the disease in many of our patients through nutritional counseling and life-style adjustments. Because of the growing prevalence of diabetes in our communities, we offer treatment hubs throughout the state, with The Diabetes Center in Volusia, Diabetes Institute in Orlando and Celebration, and the Diabetes and Endocrinology Institute in Tampa.

With diabetes services recognized by US News and World Report, Florida Hospital has become a vital resource for tens of thousands of diabetics and pre-diabetics every year. We strive give all diabetics the opportunity to live long, healthy and productive lives, and do so with advanced teams of board certified endocrinologists, certified diabetes educators, nurses, dietitians, and exercise specialists.

Our highly experienced diabetes specialists offer comprehensive care through medical treatment, education, lifestyle and nutritional modification, group and individual counseling, support groups, and weight management.

Florida Hospital endocrinologists also provide support for dysfunctional glands and hormonal imbalances that can affect:

Our medical team is uniquely positioned to work with each patient's primary care physician to provide personalized care for diabetes management, as well as other endocrine disorders, including the thyroid. We provide programs built on a solid foundation of research; some of our patients also have the opportunity to participate in clinical trials, which bring new medications and approaches to diabetes care.

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Diabetes | Florida Hospital

Heracleum mantegazzianum, commonly known as giant hogweed,[1][2][3]cartwheel-flower,[1][2][3]giant cow parsnip,[4][5]hogsbane or giant cow parsley,[6] is a plant in the family Apiaceae. In New Zealand, it is also sometimes called wild parsnip,[2] or wild rhubarb.[2] It typically grows to heights of 25.5m (6ft 7in18ft 1in).[7] Superficially, it resembles common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), Heracleum sosnowskyi, or garden angelica (Angelica archangelica). It is phototoxic and considered to be a noxious weed in many jurisdictions. Giant hogweed is native to the Caucasus region and Central Asia. It was introduced to Britain as an ornamental plant in the 19th century, and it has also spread to many other parts of Europe, the United States, and Canada.

The sap of giant hogweed causes phytophotodermatitis in humans, resulting in blisters and long-lasting scars. These serious reactions are due to the furocoumarin derivatives in the leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and seeds of the plant.

Giant hogweed has a stout, bright green stem that is frequently spotted with dark red and hollow red-spotted leaf stalks that produce sturdy bristles. The stems grow to more than 2 m high.[8] The hollow stems vary from 38cm (1.23.1in) in diameter, occasionally up to 10cm (3.9in). Each dark red spot on the stem surrounds a hair, and large, coarse white hairs occur at the base of the leaf stalk. The plant has deeply incised compound leaves which grow up to 11.7m (3ft 3in5ft 7in) in width.

Giant hogweed is a biennial or monocarpic perennial,[7]:827 the plants usually begin dying after they have set seed. It usually flowers in its second year from late spring to midsummer, with numerous white flowers clustered in an umbrella-shaped head that is up to 80cm (31in) in diameter across its flat top. The plant produces 1,500 to 100,000 flattened, 1-centimetre (0.39in)-long, oval, dry seeds that have a broadly rounded base and broad marginal ridges. Tall dead stems may mark its locations during winter.

Giant hogweed was among many foreign plants introduced to Britain in the 19th century as ornamental plants. It is now widespread throughout the British Isles, especially along riverbanks. By forming dense stands, they can displace native plants and reduce wildlife habitats.[9] It has spread in the northeastern and northwestern United States, and southern Canada and is an invasive species in Germany, France, and Belgium, overtaking the local native species, Heracleum sphondylium.[9]

In Canada, the plant has been sighted in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and in isolated areas of Newfoundland. It has been seen in Quebec since the early 1990s.[10] The plant's spread in Ontario began in the southwest and was seen in 2010 in the greater Toronto area and Renfrew County near Ottawa.[11]

Giant hogweed was introduced into New York about 1917, and was recorded in British Columbia in the 1930s. It now occurs in the west in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon and in eastern North America from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia west to Ontario and Wisconsin and south to Indiana, Maryland, and New Jersey.[12][13] It is also recorded occasionally in Michigan[14] It is a federally listed noxious weed in many states.[12]

The sap of the giant hogweed plant is phototoxic; when the contacted skin is exposed to sunlight or to ultraviolet rays, it can cause phytophotodermatitis (severe skin inflammations). Initially, the skin colours red and starts itching. Blisters form as it burns within 48 hours. They form black or purplish scars that can last several years. Hospitalisation may be necessary.[9] Although many media reports on giant hogweed suggest the plant can lead to temporary or permanent blindness, existing research on the plant does not back up this claim.[15]

These reactions are caused by the presence of linear derivatives of furanocoumarin in its leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and seeds. These chemicals can get into the nucleus of the epithelial cells, forming a bond with the DNA, causing the cells to die. The brown colour is caused by the production of melanin by furocoumarins.

Authorities advise that children should be kept away from giant hogweed, that protective clothing, including eye protection, should be worn when handling or digging it, and that if skin is exposed, the affected area should be washed thoroughly with soap and water and the exposed skin protected from the sun for several days.[9]

Because of its phototoxicity and invasive nature, giant hogweed is often actively removed. In the UK, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 makes it an offence to plant or cause giant hogweed to grow in the wild.[9][16] Hogweed is regulated as a federal noxious weed by the US government, and is illegal to import into the United States or move interstate without a permit from the Department of Agriculture.[17] The USDA Forest Service states pigs and cattle can eat it without apparent harm.[5] The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has had an active program to control giant hogweed since 2008, including reporting, database maintenance, and crews for removal or herbicide control.[18][19] In 2011, Maine state horticulturists, describing the plant as "Queen Anne's lace on steroids", reported that it has been found at 21 different locations in Maine, with the number of plants ranging from one to a hundred.[20]

The 1971 album Nursery Cryme by the progressive rock group Genesis contains a song called "The Return of the Giant Hogweed". The lyrics describe a murderous attack on the human race by Heracleum mantegazzianum, long after the plant was first "captured" and brought to England by a Victorian explorer.[21] It is typical of the dramatic, tongue-in-cheek humour prevalent in the band's early recordings. A live version can be found on their 1973 Genesis Live album.

The 1971 studio recording appears in Series 1 Episode 1 ("And No Birds Sing") of the British TV crime drama Rosemary and Thyme as the episode story centres around hogweed.

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Heracleum mantegazzianum - Wikipedia

Environmental biotechnology is biotechnology that is applied to and used to study the natural environment. Environmental biotechnology could also imply that one try to harness biological process for commercial uses and exploitation. The International Society for Environmental Biotechnology defines environmental biotechnology as "the development, use and regulation of biological systems for remediation of contaminated environments (land, air, water), and for environment-friendly processes (green manufacturing technologies and sustainable development)".[1]

Environmental biotechnology can simply be described as "the optimal use of nature, in the form of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and algae, to produce renewable energy, food and nutrients in a synergistic integrated cycle of profit making processes where the waste of each process becomes the feedstock for another process".[2]

Science through the IAASTD has called for the advancement of small-scale agro-ecological farming systems and technology in order to achieve food security, climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation and the realisation of the Millennium Development Goals. Environmental biotechnology has been shown to play a significant roll in agroecology in the form of zero waste agriculture and most significantly through the operation of over 15 million biogas digesters worldwide.

Consider an environment in which pollution of a particular type is maximum. Let us consider the effluents of a starch industry which has mixed up with a local water body like a lake or pond. We find huge deposits of starch which are not so easily taken up for degradation by micro-organisms except for a few exemptions. we isolate a few micro-organisms from the polluted site and scan for any significant changes in their genome like mutations or evolutions. The modified genes are then identified. This is done because, the isolate would have adapted itself to degrade/utilize the starch better than other microbes of the same genus. Thus, the resultant genes are cloned onto industrially significant micro-organisms and are used for more economically significant processes like in pharmaceutical industry, fermentations...etc.

Similar situations can be elucitated like in the case of oil spills in the oceans which require cleanup, microbes isolated from oil rich environments like oil wells, oil transfer pipelines...etc. have been found having the potential to degrade oil or use it as an energy source. Thus they serve as a remedy to oil spills.

Still another elucidation would be in the case of microbes isolated from pesticide rich soils These would be capable of utilizing the pesticides as energy source and hence when mixed along with bio-fertilizers, would serve as excellent insurance against increased pesticide-toxicity levels in agricultural platform.

But the counter argument would be that whether these newly introduced microorganisms would create an imbalance in the environment concerned.The mutual harmony in which the organisms in that particular environment existed may have to face alteration and we should be extremely careful so as to not disturb the mutual relationships already existing in the environment of both the benefits and the disadvantages would pave way for an improvised version of environmental biotechnology. After all it is the environment that we strive to protect.

Humans have been manipulating genetic material for centuries. Although many benefits are provided by these manipulations, there can also be unexpected, negative health and environmental outcomes. Environmental biotechnology, then, is all about the balance between the applications that provide for these and the implications of manipulating genetic material.[3] Textbooks address both the applications and implications. Environmental engineering texts addressing sewage treatment and biological principles are often now considered to be environmental biotechnology texts. These generally address the applications of biotechnologies, whereas the implications of these technologies are less often addressed; usually in books concerned with potential impacts and even catastrophic events.

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Environmental biotechnology - Wikipedia

At the Swedish Cancer Institute, we practice personalized medicine every day. We combine the newest, most advanced science with extraordinary medicine and patient-centered care in order to develop a care plan thats personalized for you. Our approach ensures the best treatment pathway for you right from the start. Using Gene Sequencing to Help Treat Your Cancer

Not all cancers are alike. Just as your genetic fingerprint determines the color of your hair and eyes, a tumors genomic fingerprint defines the cancer cells.

Identifying a tumors genomic fingerprint is called gene sequencing. This science is helping many of our patients get the best cancer treatment. Find more details about how we use gene sequencing to treat cancer.

Patients with the same type of cancer usually received the same type of treatment. For example, if you had stage IV colon cancer, you probably received similar initial chemotherapy as every other patient with stage IV colon cancer.

Today, gene sequencing allows cancer specialists at the Swedish Cancer Institute to identify gene abnormalities in cancer cells and then personalize cancer treatments for those specific abnormalities independent of where the cells or tumors are located. This information allows us to create a customized treatment plan that will work best for you.Learn more about how your personal treatment plan is developed.

Personalized medicine is the most comprehensive, effective and efficient approach to cancer care.

Cancer is personal, so we make sure everything at the Swedish Cancer Institute is personal, too. It begins with your cancer-care team. You will have a team of cancer specialists created specifically for your particular needs.

Learn more about the cancer care team

Personalized medicine at the Swedish Cancer Institute means we harness every tool to focus our clinical expertise on your disease. And we use utilize every type of therapy provide customized whole person care, focused specifically on you not just your disease.

We provide an environment, resources and support that attend to your physical, psychological, social and other needs. And because we acknowledge that you may have developed many important personal relationships long before your battle with cancer began, we also offer educational and supportive services that are designed specifically for your families and caregivers.

We call this aspect of personalized medicine supportive care services because they provide essential nurturing support critical to you throughout your cancer management from diagnosis, through treatment and survivorship.

Learn more about our supportive care services

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Personalized Medicine - Swedish Medical Center

Integrative Doctor Summary: An Integrative Doctor combines the latest advancements of conventional medicine with complimentary alternative approaches to promote wellness of the body, mind, heart, and spirit. An Integrative Doctor focuses on a more holistic approach to relieve pain, reduce stress, find alternatives to prescription medicines, or simply improve an individual's quality of life. An Integrative Doctor will typically offer individualized treatment plans based on a patients' needs. Some of the therapies an Integrative Doctor may incorporate throughout treatment include nutritional supplements, acupuncture, naturopathic medicine, clinical nutrition, massage, and energy healing. Integrative Doctors treat a wide array of ailments and illnesses and offer integrative, holistic care that is designed to treat the person, not just the disease.

Integrative Doctor FAQs: What is an

What is Conventional Medicine? Conventional Medicine is the system that physicians use to treat diseases. It is one of the practices of an Integrative Doctor.

What is Alternative Medicine? Examples of Alternative Medicine are acupuncture, massage, herbal remedies and supplements. It is also one of the practices of an Integrative Doctor.

How do I find an Integrative Doctor in my city and state? The Wellness.com directory will help you locate an Integrative Doctor in your state. Select Integrative Doctor from the professionals menu and select the state that you are looking to locate an Integrative Doctor in. After you have located your state, find the city that you will need an Integrative Doctor in. Select the state and city and you will see a list of Integrative Doctors in your city and state.

Integrative Doctor Related Terms: holistic, wellness, integrative doctor, alternative medicine, conventional medicine, herbal remedies

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Integrative Doctor in NJ - Wellness.com

The Master of Science in Genetic Counseling Program at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (ISMMS) provides students with many opportunities for study, research, and practice in the challenging and exciting field of genetic counseling.

Our program, part of the ISMMS Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, is sponsored by the Department of Genetics and Genomics Sciences, one of the largest departments of its kind in the world. Our faculty is renowned in the diagnosis, treatment and counseling of genetic disorders and is at the forefront of basic science research. Our large multidisciplinary center provides clinical and laboratory services to a wide range of culturally diverse patients and their families, along with our proven commitment to the community we serve.

The Master of Science in Genetic Counseling program is a 21-month, full-time course of study accredited by the Accreditation Council for Genetic Counseling (ACGC), which blends didactic coursework with a variety of clinical rotations.The Program has a 100% job placement rate for those seeking positions within the genetic counseling field. The first time Board certification pass rate for the classes of 2013, 2014 and 2015 is 95.5%.

Our students grow in skills and knowledge while enjoying access to the incomparable opportunities present in a prestigious academic medical center in the heart of New York City.

The Genetic Counseling Program was established in 1991 as a Certificate Program to train individuals with related advanced degrees to become genetic counselors. It became a Master of Science degree program in 1995 and is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Genetic Counseling (ACGC). As part of The Mount Sinai Health System.Our students have access to the laboratories, libraries, and educational resources of ISMMS as part of The Mount Sinai Health System.

The integration of academic and clinical disciplines within one of the country's preeminent health systems provides an ideal environment for our master's program, affording our students unparalleled opportunities for study, research, and practice in the challenging and exciting field of genetic counseling.

Randi Zinberg, MS, CGC Director, Master of Science Program in Genetic Counseling Email: randi.zinberg@mssm.edu

Sabrina Suckiel, MS, CGC Assistant Director, Master of Science Program in Genetic Counseling Email: sabrina.suckiel@mssm.edu

Julie McGlynn, MS, CGC Director, Clinical Training, Master of Science Program in Genetic Counseling Email: julie.mcglynn@mssm.edu

Genetics and Genomics Faculty

Who are genetic counselors?

Integrating the digital universe to better diagnose, treat and prevent disease

A professional network for the interests of genetic counselors

Promoting high standards in genetic counseling

Student Life and Resources

1st Year Genetic Counseling Program Experience at ISMMS

Live in one of the worlds most vibrant cities

Finance your graduate education

Course registrations, academic calendars, transcripts and more

Embracing the principles of diversity and inclusion

Learn about graduate student housing

Discover and explore research at ISMMS

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Master of Science in Genetic Counseling | Icahn School of ...

By Amy Hellem and Gary Heiting, OD

On this page: What's the difference between visual acuity, eyesight and vision? What is 20/20 vision? Seeing better than 20/20 What is perfect vision? Where to get expert advice

If you have an eye exam and are told you have 20/20 vision, does this mean you have perfect eyesight? Is it possible to achieve even better than 20/20 vision? And what is "perfect vision" anyway?

To answer these questions, let's take a closer look at vision-related terminology to fully understand how eye doctors measure the quality of your vision.

Visual acuity. This, literally, is the sharpness of your vision. Visual acuity is measured by your ability to identify letters or numbers on a standardized eye chart from a specific viewing distance.

Visual acuity is a static measurement, meaning you are sitting still during the testing and the letters or numbers you are viewing also are stationary.

Visual acuity also is tested under high contrast conditions typically, the letters or numbers on the eye chart are black, and the background of the chart is white.

Although visual acuity testing is very useful to determine the relative clarity of your eyesight in standardized conditions, it isn't predictive of the quality of your vision in all situations. For example, it can't predict how well you would see:

Three major physical and neurological factors determine visual acuity:

Only light that is focused on a very small and highly sensitive portion of the central retina (called the macula) influences visual acuity measurements obtained during an eye exam.

FIND A DOCTOR: If you're worried about your vision, visit an eye doctor near you. >

Visual acuity typically is quantified with Snellen fractions (see "What is 20/20 Vision?" below).

Eyesight. The exact definition of "eyesight" is difficult to pin down. Depending on which dictionary or other resource you check, it can mean "ability to see," "the sense of seeing," "vision," "range of sight" or "view." Often, the terms "eyesight" and "visual acuity" are used interchangeably.

Vision. This is a broader term than visual acuity or eyesight. In addition to sharpness of sight or simply a description of the ability to see, the term "vision" usually includes a wider range of visual abilities and skills. These include contrast sensitivity, the ability to track moving objects with smooth and accurate eye movements, color vision, depth perception, focusing speed and accuracy, and more.

If this more inclusive (and accurate) definition of "vision" is used, what most people call "20/20 vision" should really be called "20/20 visual acuity." Realistically, that probably won't happen. For better or worse, the term "20/20 vision" is likely here to stay.

The term "20/20" and similar fractions (such as 20/40, 20/60, etc.) are visual acuity measurements. They also are called Snellen fractions, named after Herman Snellen, the Dutch ophthalmologist who developed this measurement system in 1862.

In the Snellen visual acuity system, the top number of the Snellen fraction is the viewing distance between the patient and the eye chart. In the United States, this distance typically is 20 feet; in other countries, it is 6 meters.

At this testing distance, the size of the letters on one of the smaller lines near the bottom of the eye chart has been standardized to correspond to "normal" visual acuity this is the "20/20" line. If you can identify the letters on this line but none smaller, you have normal (20/20) visual acuity.

The increasingly larger letter sizes on the lines on the Snellen chart above the 20/20 line correspond to worse visual acuity measurements (20/40, 20/60, etc.); the lines with smaller letters below the 20/20 line on the chart correspond to visual acuity measurements that are even better than 20/20 vision (e.g., 20/15, 20/12, 20/10).

The single big "E" at the top of most Snellen eye charts corresponds to 20/200 visual acuity. If this is the smallest letter size you can discern with your best corrective lenses in front of your eyes, you are legally blind.

On most Snellen charts, the smallest letters correspond to 20/10 visual acuity. If you have 20/10 visual acuity, your eyesight is twice as sharp as that of a person with normal (20/20) vision.

Yes, it's indeed possible to have sharper than 20/20 vision. In fact, most people with young, healthy eyes are capable of identifying at least some of the letters on the 20/15 line or even smaller letters on the Snellen chart.

This may be due in part to better printing methods available today vs. those in the 19th century when Snellen was determining the smallest letters a person with normal vision should be able to discern. So a case could be made that "normal" visual acuity today is an ability to identify letters that are a bit smaller than those on the 20/20 line of a traditional Snellen eye chart.

Even if you see 20/20, you may feel your vision isn't as sharp as you'd like. There are remedies for this.

On the other hand, people are living longer today than they did in Snellen's era. Normal aging changes in the eye, such as early cataracts, could justify considering somewhat larger letters than those on the 20/20 line as being indicative of "normal" vision among adults in their 60s or older.

Regardless of these considerations, let's say your eye doctor says you have 20/20 vision (or, more accurately, 20/20 visual acuity), and you want sharper eyesight. What can you do?

If your 20/20 vision doesn't seem sharp enough, it could be that your eyes have higher-order aberrations (HOAs) that cannot be corrected with regular eyeglasses or soft contact lenses. Your eye doctor can check for these aberrations with wavefront technology that is available in some eye care practices.

If HOAs are caused by small irregularities in the shape of the front surface of your eyes, being fitted with gas permeable contact lenses (GP lenses) often can improve your visual acuity better than eyeglasses or soft contact lenses. This is because GP lenses are rigid and essentially replace the eye's irregular front surface with a perfectly smooth, curved surface to focus light more accurately.

Another option might be custom wavefront LASIK. This personalized laser vision correction surgery can provide vision that is comparable to wearing rigid gas permeable contact lenses (which often is sharper than the visual acuity provided by glasses or soft contact lenses), without the hassle of the daily contact lens care.

If you prefer to wear eyeglasses to correct your refractive errors, glasses with special high-definition lenses might give you sharper vision than regular eyeglass lenses.

It's nearly impossible to quantify what "perfect" vision is. Besides, a more interesting question would be, "Perfect for what?"

For example, if you are driving on a sunny day, excellent Snellen visual acuity might be the main factor in your satisfaction with your vision. But your girlfriend, who has worse visual acuity than yours, might be happier with her vision in the same circumstances because she is wearing polarized sunglasses with anti-reflective coating that enhance contrast and block glare.

Or an athlete who has better than 20/20 vision might struggle with his performance because he doesn't have certain dynamic visual skills that allow him to react to moving objects as quickly as a teammate whose static visual acuity isn't as sharp as his.

The first step to maximizing the clarity and comfort of your eyesight in all situations is to see a qualified optometrist or ophthalmologist for a comprehensive eye exam and vision evaluation.

If you are interested in finding out if laser vision correction could sharpen your vision better than glasses or contacts, ask to be referred to an experienced LASIK surgeon for a consultation.

If you want to maximize your dynamic vision skills for sports and other activities, seek an eye doctor who is a sports vision specialist and ask about sports vision training.

Finally, if your child has 20/20 vision but is struggling with eye strain and other vision problems in school, seek the advice of an eye care provider who specializes in children's vision to have your child evaluated for possible learning-related vision problems.

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About the Author: Amy Hellem is a writer, editor and researcher who specializes in eye care and other medical fields. She is a past editor-in-chief of the professional ophthalmic journals Review of Optometry and Review of Cornea & Contact Lenses and currently is president of Hellem Consulting, LLC.

[Page updated September 2016]

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Winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize for Literature. A city is hit by an epidemic of 'white blindness.' The blindness spreads, sparing no one. Authorities confine the blind to a vacant mental hospital secured by armed guards. Inside, the criminal element among the blind hold the rest captive: food rations are stolen, women are raped. There is one eyewitness to this nightmare who guides seven strangers through the barren streets. The developments within this oddly anonymous group -- the first blind man, the old man with the black eye patch, the girl with dark glasses, the boy with no mother, and the dog of tears -- are as uncanny as the surrounding chaos is harrowing.

A parable of loss and disorientation, of man's worst appetities and hopeless weaknesses, Blindness is one of the most challenging, thought-provoking, and ultimately exhilarating novels published in any language in recent years.

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Blindness (Movie Tie-In) by Jos Saramago | 2900156035582 ...

Birth defects affect the structure or function of parts or systems in the body and this can result in many different developmental and health problems. Birth defects which affect the sensory organs are known as sensory birth defects; the most common examples include cataracts, visual impairment, blindness and hearing loss.

Blindness rarely develops during the teenage and early adult years; most people are either born with blindness or develop it as a result of other visual problems which get worse as they age. In some rare cases, blindness may also result from an accident or injury or exposure to a harmful chemical. Blindness that exists from birth is known as congenital blindness; in this case, the baby will probably never be able to see. There are different degrees of visual impairment and some people who have a birth defect which affects the sensory organs only suffer from mild visual impairment.

There may be many different causes of congenital blindness and visual problems; possible causes are outlined below:

Blindness can also be caused by existing conditions, which become worse over time; examples of these conditions include glaucoma and cataracts, which may be common symptoms of birth defects.

Being blind does not have any impact on intellectual capacity but it may make learning more difficult because so much of our learning and development is aided by seeing the world around us. Blind children and adults tend to rely on their other senses, particularly their hearing and touch to guide them and enable them to learn. Using Braille and other tangible objects enables blind people to do everyday activities such as crossing the road, making a phone call or reading a book; Braille uses small tangible dots and bumps that can spell out words or replace letters or numbers. Audio books enable blind people to listen to books, rather than reading them and hearing can also be very beneficial for things like communicating with others and keeping safe when out and about.

Many children with visual impairment attend regular schools, although there are many specialist schools which cater for children with more severe visual problems and blindness. At school, pupils should be given additional support and the school should cater for them by providing Braille equipment and ensuring the surroundings are suitable and safe.

As mentioned above, many people rely on their other senses to get around and live a normal daily life; however, there are additional aids which can help to make life easier. Braille, as e have already established, is hugely beneficial for blind people; it allows them to do everything from making a telephone call and reading a book, to understanding forms and letters. Many blind people also benefit from having a specially trained guide dog; these dogs help to enable people to stay relatively independent and keep them safe when they are crossing roads or are out and about walking.

There is currently no cure for blindness and those born with blindness will have to face the reality of never being able to see; this is a strange, frightening concept for people who have good sight. There are treatments available for some visual conditions; however, not all problems are curable. If you are born with a visual impairment, your doctor or ophthalmologist will discuss all the possible options and treatment pathways with you.

Scientists and researchers are currently working on numerous projects to identify measures and treatments which can cure congenital blindness; one of the methods being trialled is gene therapy.

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Blindness - Sensory Birth Defects - Medic8