Where Does Protagonist Therapeutics Inc (PTGX) Stock Fall in the Biotechnology Field After It Has Risen 3.62% This Week? InvestorsObserver
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Where Does Protagonist Therapeutics Inc (PTGX) Stock Fall in the Biotechnology Field After It Has Risen 3.62% This Week? - InvestorsObserver
International Carrot Day: From healthy eyesight to weight loss - 5 wonderful benefits of carrot Zee Business
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International Carrot Day: From healthy eyesight to weight loss - 5 wonderful benefits of carrot - Zee Business
Ophthalmology is the study of medical conditions relating to the eye. Ophthalmologists are doctors who specialize in the medical and surgical treatment of this organ.
A general practice doctor may refer someone to an ophthalmologist if they show symptoms of cataracts, eye infections, optic nerve problems, or other eye conditions.
In this article, we look at what ophthalmologists do, including the types of conditions that they treat, the procedures they perform, and when a person might see this specialist.
An ophthalmologist is a medical doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating eye-related conditions.
To practice in the United States, ophthalmologists must complete:
Some ophthalmologists undergo a year or two of fellowship training specializing in one of the many subspecialties of ophthalmology, such as:
Subspecialist ophthalmologists have usually completed training that allows them to work on eye conditions that are complex, involve a specific part of the eye, or affect certain groups of people. They also train more extensively than regular ophthalmologists to perform extremely intricate surgeries on delicate parts of the eye.
Ophthalmologists are responsible for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of almost all eye conditions and visual issues.
However, subspecialist ophthalmologists tend to treat and monitor certain conditions, such as:
Aside from caring for the eyes and vision, an ophthalmologists medical training may also equip them to notice symptoms of conditions that do not directly relate to the eye. In such cases, they can refer people for the appropriate treatment.
Many ophthalmologists also participate in some form of scientific research focusing on the causes of eye and vision conditions, as well as potential cures.
Most ophthalmologists are trained and certified to perform a wide range of medical and surgical procedures. The procedures that an ophthalmologist regularly carries out depend on several factors, such as the type of practice and specialty in which they work.
Some of the most common everyday procedures that an ophthalmologist will perform include diagnosing and monitoring mild eye and vision conditions. They will also spend time prescribing and fitting glasses and contact lenses to correct vision problems.
Subspecialist ophthalmologists tend to perform a smaller range of procedures on a day-to-day basis, focusing instead on the treatment of one condition or a few related conditions.
Procedures that subspecialists commonly perform include:
Most people see an ophthalmologist because they are experiencing chronic or severe vision symptoms or signs of eye conditions, such as:
A person may need emergency care from an ophthalmologist if their symptoms include:
A person may also receive a referral to an ophthalmologist if they have conditions or factors that can increase the risk of eye conditions, such as:
A family doctor, pediatrician, emergency room doctor, or optometrist usually refers a person to an ophthalmologist.
The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommend that people have a full medical eye exam by the age of 40 years so that an ophthalmologist can create a baseline profile of their eye health.
Having an eye health baseline is important because it makes it easier for doctors to spot or track eye or vision changes, which are often subtle and difficult to detect. Even healthy people can suddenly experience severe eye conditions.
Unlike ophthalmologists, optometrists and opticians are not medical doctors. However, members of all three distinct professions can, and frequently do, work in the same office or practice.
Optometrists are healthcare professionals who provide primary vision care. Optometrists hold a Doctor of Optometry (OD) degree, which requires the completion of 34 years of college and then 4 years of optometry school.
While the procedures that they perform vary between states and individual practices or clinics, most optometrists:
Opticians are a type of healthcare technician. They are specially trained to help design, confirm, select, or fit corrective vision devices, including contact lenses and eyeglass lenses and frames. Opticians cannot diagnose or treat conditions and must follow the prescription and guidance of optometrists and ophthalmologists.
The other eye healthcare professionals who frequently work with ophthalmologists and optometrists include:
Ophthalmologists are medical doctors who have undergone specialist training to diagnose and treat conditions involving the eyes and vision. They perform a wide range of medical and vision tests, minor office procedures, and some surgeries.
Some ophthalmologists specialize in a specific branch of ophthalmology that deals with particular procedures, parts of the eye, or groups of people.
A family doctor, pediatrician, or emergency room doctor usually refers a person to an ophthalmologist because of eye or vision problems. They refer people with symptoms and signs of conditions that need treating or monitoring.
Someone might also see an ophthalmologist if they have a higher risk of eye conditions or have health conditions that often lead to vision problems.
According to eye health authorities, most people should have an ophthalmologist perform a complete eye exam before the age of 40 years to establish a baseline profile of their eye health.
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What is ophthalmology? Medical conditions, procedures, and more
If youve ever had to search for an eye care doctor, youre likely aware that there are several different types of eye specialists. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians are all professionals who specialize in eye care.
An optometrist is an eye doctor that can examine, diagnose, and treat your eyes. An ophthalmologist is a medical doctor who can perform medical and surgical interventions for eye conditions. An optician is a professional who can help fit eyeglasses, contact lenses, and other vision-correcting devices.
In this article, we will explore the education requirements, salary, scope of practice, and services that optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians provide. We will also discuss how to choose the best eye-care professional for your needs.
An optometrist is the primary health care provider for routine eye care.
An optometry program is a postgraduate program that takes roughly 4 years to complete, depending on the school and curriculum. The program curriculum includes:
Optometry program coursework also includes full-time clinical training as a resident during the final 1 to 2 years of the program.
In 2018, the median salary for optometrists was $111,790, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
You can visit an optometrist for your yearly eye exam, to refill an eyeglass or contact prescription, or even to receive medication and treatment for certain eye conditions. Unlike an ophthalmologist, an optometrist is not a surgical specialist and cannot treat more serious eye conditions.
Optometrists provide the following services::
Optometrists can prescribe controlled medications for eye conditions. Depending on the state legislation, some optometrists can also perform minor surgeries. These surgical procedures may include foreign body removal, laser eye surgery, and certain additional surgical interventions.
An ophthalmologist is a medical doctor who specializes in surgical eye procedures.
All ophthalmologists must complete a full medical program before they can begin a residency program in ophthalmology. An ophthalmology residency program takes an additional 4 to 7 years to complete, depending on the school and curriculum. The residency program expands on:
Ophthalmology residency training also includes the hands-on care of patients, which involves performing surgical procedures under supervision. The residency program generally follows a one year internship.
In 2018, the average salary for ophthalmologists was $290,777 according to Salary.com.
You can visit an ophthalmologist for the same care as an optometrist, such as a routine eye exam or prescription refill. However, an ophthalmologist can also perform eye surgery for various diseases and conditions, including cataracts, glaucoma, and strabismus surgery, plus more.
Ophthalmologists provide the following services:
Ophthalmologists receive 12 or more years of training in order to be able to perform in-depth surgical procedures for diseases of the eyes. Given that this is their specialty, almost all ophthalmologists will focus on this as their primary scope of care.
Depending on the scope of practice within the state, both optometrists and ophthalmologists can perform eye surgery. However, optometrists are limited in the surgeries they can perform while ophthalmologists can perform any and all surgical procedures they are trained for.
An optician is a customer service representative who works in a vision care store or optometrists office.
Optician training is much more informal than optometry or ophthalmology training. An optician does not necessarily need to hold a formal degree. An optician can become certified by completing a 1- to 2-year program, such as an associates program in ophthalmic dispensing.
An optician may also become certified through an in-house apprenticeship under an ophthalmologist or optometrist.
In 2018, the median salary for opticians was $37,010 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Opticians perform customer service duties at your optometrists office or local vision care center. You can visit an optician for routine care, adjustment, and refilling of prescription eyeglasses and contact lenses.
Opticians can also answer general eye care questions, but they cannot examine, diagnose or treat diseases of the eye.
Opticians provide the following services:
Unlike optometrists and ophthalmologists, opticians are not allowed to perform any eye exams or diagnose or treat any eye conditions.
How do you know which provider you should choose for your eye care? Choosing an optometrist, ophthalmologist, or optician will depend on the service you need.
Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians are all eye care professionals who differ in their education, specialty, and scope of practice.
Optometrists are basic eye care specialists who can examine, diagnose, and medically treat eye conditions. Ophthalmologists are a type of medical doctor who specialize in surgical procedures of the eye. Opticians are customer service specialists who work in vision care centers and optometry offices.
Choosing the right eye care professional for you will depend on what services you need. For a comprehensive list of optometrists near you, check out the American Optometric Associations Find a Doctor tool.
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Optometrist vs. Ophthalmologist: Choosing Your Eye Care Provider
Aesthetic Center
Experts treat patients who want to enhance their appearance through surgery. For example, treatment might involve eyelid reshaping, fat transfer or liposuction to alter a persons facial features. Patients who want aesthetic surgery receive care from specialists trained in both ophthalmic and plastic surgery.
UCLA Health ophthalmology conductsresearch in public health ophthalmology and provide high-impact, community-based services. For example, our Mobile Eye Clinic improves access to care in underserved communities.
Specialists use a team approach to research blinding diseases. Private donations, including an endowment established by the Ahmanson Foundation, fund this research center, established in 1997.
We provide core support for studies that include patient care. Every clinical trial and study involves vital, behind-the-scenes details that enable us to continue this research. At present, we are conducting almost 80 clinical research studies to help us better understand eye disorders and treatments.
Our ophthalmologists specialize in treating patients with diabetes-related eye conditions. Established more than a decade ago, the center has contributed significantly both to the understanding and the care of eye diseases in people with diabetes.
Specialists provide ultramodern vision correction treatments. We were one of a limited number of study sites in the United States that participated in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clinical trial of excimer laser technology. We also were the first site in Los Angeles to use FDA-approved laser treatment to correct myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism (imperfect eye curvature).
Our team offers high-quality care and rehabilitation and promotes collaborative research for macular degeneration (an eye disease that causes vision loss). Patients in this program, established in 1994, often have access to new treatments through clinical trials.
For more than 40 years, weve provided eye exams and screenings in neighborhoods where poverty and vision disabilities intersect. This 39-foot-long bus is outfitted with equipment for eye exams and supported by charitable donations. Each year, we provide eye care to more than 20,000 underserved adults and children in Southern California.
We established this center in 1985 to coordinate research, education and patient care of inflammatory eye disorders. Inflammatory diseases include those that cause eye swelling and destroy tissue. We have a long history of participating in clinical and drug therapy trials that advance our understanding of these diseases.
Specialists have renowned expertise in teaching, research and clinical management of tumors. Our program has achieved international recognition for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular melanoma (cancer of the eye).
We serve as a hub for national, long-term studies that investigate eye cancer. We also played an important role in the Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study, a significant research initiative sponsored by the National Eye Institute.
Experts treat conditions that affect the optic nerve. Your optic nerves carry images from your eyes to your brain so you can see. If you have an optic nerve condition, your treatment might involve the expertise of ophthalmologists, orbital surgeons, neurologists, neuroradiologists or neurosurgeons.
We study and treat orbital (bony eye socket) diseases brought on by trauma, cancer, inflammation or infection. Our multidisciplinary collaboration offers patients a level of knowledge and expertise not found elsewhere in Southern California. We also have an active program in thyroid eye diseases, through which we study eye conditions that also affect your endocrine system.
We address the full spectrum of hereditary eye disorders (disorders you inherit from your parents). We offer diagnosis and treatment, as well as genetic counseling or DNA testing when appropriate.
Specialists in the Vision Genetics Center, established in 1978, collaborate with genetic research groups around the world. Our efforts ensure that patients have access to the most advanced treatments and clinical trials.
Our team provides rehabilitation services to help people with low vision maximize their function and improve their quality of life. We tailor the treatment plan to a patients individual goals and can help anyone who has difficulty with visual tasks, such as reading.
We also conduct research studies and pioneer novel ways to help people with vision loss. For example, we developed a system that uses rehabilitation delivered virtually to increase access to care. The approach involves video conferencing with a doctor. Now, we are part of a national, multicenter trial to evaluate how this new approach can improve reading ability.
Our specialists are experts in diagnosis, treatment and management of all conditions that affect the eyes, including pediatric vision concerns. Common conditions we treat include:
Astigmatism: An imperfect curving of your eye that causes blurry vision.
Blepharitis: Eyelid inflammation that can lead to dry eyes, redness or swelling.
Cataracts: When proteins build up in your eye and cause cloudy or fuzzy vision.
Conjunctivitis (pinkeye): Inflammation or infection in your eye that causes itching, redness and crusting around the eye.
Glaucoma: Conditions that damage your optic nerve (nerve that carries images to your brain), often caused by a buildup of pressure in your eye.
Macular degeneration: Deterioration of your retina (the back part of your eye that interprets and sends images to your brain).
Myopia (nearsightedness): A common vision condition in which you can focus on close objects but not on objects that are far away.
Our goal is to find the best, most effective treatment options for eye conditions. We provide a range of nonsurgical and surgical treatments.
Our specialists care for both routine and complex eye conditions. Nonsurgical treatments we offer include:
Anti-glare glasses: Devices designed to improve vision while reducing eye strain.
Artificial tears: Eyedrops that improve lubrication and moisture on your eyes surface.
Contact lenses: Thin devices placed directly over your eyes surface to improve vision.
Eye drops: Drops that contain saline and medication such as steroids or antihistamines.
Eye patches: A device made of cloth, plastic or an adhesive bandage that covers the eye.
Warm compresses for your eyes: Applying a clean, warm cloth over your eyes to relieve swelling, pain or inflammation.
We offer research-based, advanced surgical treatments for a range of eye conditions. Common surgeries include:
Blepharoplasty: Plastic surgery to change the appearance of your eyelids, often by correcting droopiness.
Corneal transplant: Repairing your cornea (transparent tissue that covers your eye) with donor tissue.
Orbital decompression: Removing fat or bone from behind the eye so that your eye sits back further in its socket.
Photodynamic therapy: Combining light energy with specific drugs to destroy precancerous or cancerous cells.
Pneumatic retinopexy: Injecting your eye with a small air bubble to push the retina in place while your surgeon repairs retinal tears.
Strabismus surgery: Surgically loosening or tightening eye muscles to correct irregular eye alignment (crossed eyes).
Vitrectomy: Removing fluid from the eye to treat problems with the retina or vitreous humor (the gel-like tissue that fills your eyeball).
The specialists on our ophthalmology team have led the way in the research and clinical care of eye conditions. We use the latest techniques and have pioneered advanced treatment options.
Call 310-825-5000 to request an appointment with an eye specialist at UCLA Health.
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Ophthalmology Services & Information | UCLA Health
Andre Terzic, M.D., Ph.D.
Center for Regenerative Biotherapeutics, Mayo Clinic
Andre Terzic, M.D., Ph.D.: Regenerative medicine is an exciting component of modern health care. It harnesses breakthroughs in technologies to address major unmet needs of the population, both nationally but also globally. With the successes of traditional medicine, we'll live longer. And aging has been viewed as a major triumph of humanity. At the same time, unfortunately, with aging, we are facing with a growing pandemic of so-called chronic diseases diseases that live with us throughout our lifespan, heart disease, cancer, diabetes and so on.
So regenerative medicine comes with this new ability to understand how our body can heal and to harness its innate ability, that self-ability to heal, to actually provide new solutions to these patients in need. So the Center for Regenerative Biotherapeutics at Mayo Clinic has been built to address the unmet needs of patients. It builds on our new knowledge, bringing new ways to promote the self-repair ability of our body.
There have been magic moments during these few decades that we have built the regenerative medicine field. One such moment was when we saw, for the first time, how out of a stem cell, we can create new beating heart tissue. It was a revolution for us.
We would like to bring now this knowledge that may have started in one field to build it across fields as the new science allows, essentially, for learning between fields. We need true, radical innovation to move the current knowledge into new solutions. That is where regenerative medicine has a unique role. It changes the way we treat patients.
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About Regenerative Medicine - Center for Regenerative ... - Mayo Clinic
Instead of trying to compensate for failing organs, what if we could readily replace diseased or injured body parts with brand-new versions made in the lab? Researchers working in the field of regenerative medicine have already made amazing progress, creating artificial organs and miniature labs-on-a-chip. The return on investment for this area of research is expected to be dramatic: better understanding of how diseases develop and spread, accurate screens for testing new drugs, and cell-based therapies for diabetes, arthritis, Parkinsons disease, and many other conditions that affect millions of Americans. NIH researchers have already created miniature hearts that beat rhythmically in a culture dish and contain all the different cell types that make up a human heart. Scientists have also developed a lung-on-a-chip. When intermittent suction is applied, the cells in this thumb-sized device flex and stretch rhythmically just as they do in our lungs when we breathe. For individuals with kidney failure, the potential of using their own skin cells to build a new kidney might now be within reach given years of hard work and the necessary research investment.
Each year, NIH research funding can be expected to generate more than 100 new inventions..
Previous: The Future of Biomedicine Next: The CRISPR Revolution
This page last reviewed on February 28, 2023
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Regenerative Medicine | National Institutes of Health (NIH)
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Porcine Vaccine Market is estimated to be US$ 4.41 billion by 2030 with a CAGR of 7.50%during the forecast - EIN News
A highly drug-resistant bacteria that was linked to eyedrops imported from India and that spread from person to person in a Connecticut long-term care center has prompted concerns that the strain could gain a foothold in U.S. health care settings, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Infectious disease specialists said the strain had not been previously detected in the United States, and that it was particularly difficult to treat with existing antibiotics.
In recent months, three deaths, eight cases of blindness and dozens of infections have been traced to EzriCare artificial tears, according to the C.D.C., leading to a widespread recall this year.
The Food and Drug Administration, which regulates over-the-counter medicine, has stopped imports of the product. But these outbreaks highlight regulatory gaps in controlling imports of overseas medications.
The F.D.A. confirmed that it had not inspected the factory where the eyedrops were made in India before the infections were reported, but that the agency had since visited the plant, which is operated by Global Pharma Healthcare.
The agency has long been criticized for lapses in inspections of overseas manufacturing in China and India, which are the two major producers of drugs and raw ingredients for medicines. Other instances of contaminated products from overseas included blood pressure medications suspected of containing a possible carcinogen and deadly batches of heparin, both of which prompted mass recalls.
The F.D.A. said it was continuing to work with the C.D.C. and had urged retailers to make sure the products were removed from shelves.
In the latest instance, the eyedrops are linked to bacteria that is even more drug-resistant than a similar bacteria that the C.D.C. tends to see in about 150 cases per year, mostly in intensive-care settings, according to Maroya Walters, lead investigator for the C.D.C.s antimicrobial resistance team.
Dr. Walters said the spread of the newest strain really could change the outlook for that.
The bacteria showed signs of spreading within the Connecticut center among asymptomatic patients who had the bacteria colonized in their bodies. Such spread tends to occur when patients touch common items or when health care workers transmit the germs.
The bacterium linked to the eyedrops, drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is already a top concern for health care providers, especially among those with compromised immune systems, nursing home residents and patients with invasive medical devices like catheters and breathing tubes.
Dr. David van Duin, an infectious disease specialist at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine, said resistant pseudomonas was especially difficult to eradicate, both from health care facilities, where it clings tenaciously to sink drains, water faucets and other moist environments, and from patients who develop bloodstream infections.
Its very hard to get rid of, he said.
By now, cases associated with the eyedrops have largely been contained, thanks to a product recall and widespread attention from the news media, Dr. Walters said. The F.D.A. had also announced the recall of Delsam Pharmas Artificial Eye ointment, which was made in the same factory as the eyedrops, because of possible contamination.
The C.D.C. is asking doctors to work with public health labs to determine the genetic fingerprint of hard-to-treat Pseudomonas infections in the eye and throughout the body.
I think we are going to see the impact of this play out over the course of months to years, Dr. Walters said.
In late December, the C.D.C. linked the EzriCare drops to an outbreak that has affected 68 patients in 16 states, including eight patients who lost their vision and four who had an eyeball removed.
The F.D.A. has not said how much of the product made by Global Pharma Healthcare in Chennai, India, was imported.
However, records provided to The New York Times by Panjiva, the supply chain research unit of S&P Global Market Intelligence, show that Global Pharma sent U.S. distributors four shipments in 2021 and 2022 amounting to tens of thousands of half-ounce bottles of EzriCare artificial tears.
While the F.D.A. requires a pre-approval inspection of plants that manufacture prescription drugs, there is no such mandate for those that make over-the-counter medicines like artificial tears. Compounding the problem, the number of inspections the agency conducts has plummeted since the pandemic began.
Representative Rosa DeLauro, Democrat of Connecticut, expressed concern about the F.D.A.s ability to oversee what she described as substandard safety practices at U.S. and foreign plants, and called for providing the agency with more funding and greater authority to recall products. Lives are at stake, she said in a statement.
On Jan. 3, the F.D.A. blocked Global Pharmas imports, saying the company had provided an inadequate response to a records request and violated manufacturing rules. Shannon P. Hatch, a spokeswoman for the agency, said that the import alert was unrelated to the outbreak.
The F.D.A. also said it recommended a voluntary recall on Feb. 2 over a lack of appropriate microbial testing, formulation issues and the absence of proper controls around tamper-evident packaging. The agency conducted an unannounced inspection at the India plant from Feb. 20 through March 2 and found a litany of problems with the plants sterility practices, according to an inspection report that was first reported by STAT news.
Clean-room operators were not qualified for the job, and they wore discolored and worn-out foot covers, the report said. An inspector noted a black, brown colored greasy deposit on machinery in a room where bottles were filled with the eye drops. One worker acknowledged to an inspector that there was no procedure for cleaning one of the filling machines, according to the report.
Global Pharma did not respond to questions in March. But on Feb. 1, the company said it had not determined whether our manufacturing facility is the source of the contamination. EzriCare said on its website that it marketed the drops, but that it had no role in the actual manufacturing of this product. Wal-Mart and Amazon, among the larger retailers that sold the drops, did not respond to requests for comment.
Clara Elvira Oliva, 68, a contact lens wearer from Florida, began using EzriCare Artificial Tears to moisturize her eyes at the recommendation of the ophthalmologist at her health clinic.
One morning in August, she woke up to find her right eye red and itchy and oozing liquid. Alarmed, she returned that day to the ophthalmologist, who prescribed antibiotic drops. But in the weeks that followed, she said, the irritation persisted and her eyesight began to deteriorate, stumping eye care providers who prescribed an ever-changing variety of antibiotic and antifungal drops.
All the while, she kept using the EzriCare drops in both eyes. No one told me to stop using them, Ms. Oliva said in an interview.
By the end of August, the infection in her right eye had become so dire that specialists told her she would need a cornea transplant. After the operation, she was told the eye was so ravaged by infection that doctors had no choice but to remove it.
Since that day, my life has never been the same, said Ms. Oliva, a retired cosmetologist who lives with her son in Miramar.
Dr. Walters collected mounting reports of antibiotic-resistant infections in several states that had a strikingly similar genetic fingerprint.
C.D.C. investigators examined an outbreak of about two dozen cases at the long-term care center in Connecticut, where they saw evidence of bacterial spread among residents. That investigation pointed to eyedrops, but the centers records made it difficult to tell what type had been used.
By late December, the C.D.C. had tested 23 open bottles of eyedrops. Eleven of the EzriCare artificial tear bottles harbored bacteria, and seven of those matched the outbreak strain, Dr. Walters said.
While the finding is not definitive proof that the bacteria came from the bottle and not from touching an infected eye, the evidence was compelling, Dr. Walters said.
For Ms. Oliva, the vision in her left eye, already compromised by scarring, continues to deteriorate, making it difficult to drive, cook and read. Unsteady on her feet, she avoids going out. Sometimes I bump into people because I dont see them, but they think Im just not paying attention, she said.
Ms. Olivas lawyer, Natasha Cortes, said she was investigating two cases of patients who went to the same clinic and developed vision problems, as well as five others.
The outbreak has renewed longstanding concerns about the quality and frequency of the F.D.A.s overseas inspections.
In June 2020, Senator Chuck Grassley, Republican of Iowa, held an oversight hearing on the F.D.A.s foreign inspection process, noting that the plants were given 12 weeks advance notice, plenty of time to doctor up a facility to make sure that it passes inspection. The agency has since received budget authority to conduct unannounced overseas inspections.
The F.D.A. paused overseas inspections during the height of the coronavirus pandemic, and the number of foreign inspections remained low last year, at 684 compared with 3,272 in 2019, according to agency data.
The F.D.A. has 4,000 overseas facilities to inspect, with about 20 percent in India; one of its six inspector positions in that country was vacant in late 2021, according to a report issued last year by the Government Accountability Office.
For over-the-counter drugs, the F.D.A. uses a system that essentially lists a medication recipe. Companies can make the products without express agency approval but are expected to follow agency rules for manufacturing quality products, said John Serio, a lawyer with Withers who has pharmaceutical clients.
If youre not out there inspecting facilities, Mr. Serio said, these sorts of problems will crop up because theres no threat that if youre out of compliance that the inspector will come knocking at your door.
Dr. Vicente Diaz, the chief of ophthalmology at Yale Health Plan in Connecticut who specializes in infectious diseases, said the infections evading the big gun antibiotics had alarmed experts. He worries that if doctors use ineffective antibiotics for too long or wait to culture a bug, that gives the bacteria more time to multiply and get more aggressive, he said.
EzriCare drops do not contain preservatives, a fact that Dr. Diaz found troubling. He said he had never seen another reusable eye product without preservatives or other safety features to limit bacterial growth. Preservative-free drops usually come in single-use bottles, given the risk, he said.
Im surprised that formulation was allowed to go on the market without more scrutiny, he said. Its kind of like the perfect storm.
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World Health Day 2023: Understanding the science of Epi-genetics and how to apply it in our daily lives Free Press Journal
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World Health Day 2023: Understanding the science of Epi-genetics and how to apply it in our daily lives - Free Press Journal
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By Joe Boland
July 6, 2021
Most people tend to look at the cycle of life as inevitable, and while its true that none of us can outrun Father Time, there are natural life extenders that can activate longevity pathways to slow the aging process.
Genes are not your destiny, says Dr. David Sinclair, Ph.D., A.O., on the Dr. Axe show podcast. You can change that rate of aging by doing the right things.
What are those things? Sinclair, a professor in the Department of Genetics, co-Director of the Paul F. Glenn Center for Biology of Aging Research at Harvard Medical School and founder of the Sinclair Lab at Harvards Blavatnik Institute, which specializes in genetics and longevity, says that a healthy lifestyle is the key, emphasizing these five things the most:
These things can extend your life span by 14 years or more just by doing the basics, he says. And it turns out an estimated 80% of your health and longevity is not genetic. It depends on how you live your life.
Sinclair says four important factors in longevity are:
By looking at these factors and others, Sinclairs team has been able to determine peoples biological age how old they are based on their bodies and health, not necessarily how long since they were born and his researchers have discovered a group of longevity genes called sirtuins.
They control how fast we age, Sinclair says of sirtuins. There are molecules in foods we eat that activate these defenses in our body, these genes. These molecules are the same that are in food types that people in Blue Zones eat: resveratrol and oleic acid found in things like olive oil, avocado and nuts.
It turns out, these genes are not predetermined. They can be fostered to help extend longevity and support a healthier overall lifestyle.
Weve got the wrong conception about what aging is. We tend to think that its just a natural process that we can do nothing about, but weve learned that thats not true 80% of the rate of our aging is in our own hands. Its actually controlled by how we live and what we eat, Sinclair says.
I am proposing a new theory about why we age: the loss of information in our body and how to preserve that information over time. The analogy would be if we had a DVD of information on ourselves, over time the it gets scratched, so the cell cannot read the original genetic information easily. What weve discovered is we can now polish that DVD and get the cell to read the useful information again. And in that way, were actually showing that we can reverse the aging process.
Theres a lot of evidence that fasting turns on these longevity pathways, Sinclair says. Dont eat three large meals a day and snack in between. I think the old idea of always having food around and never being hungry has to be revised.
Dont sit in a chair all day. Get a standing desk if you can. Go for walks, and even better do HIIT if you can. Work out. Keep your muscles from declining, says Sinclair.
Maybe its also finding a new sport that you want to play again and again, with friends such as golf, tennis or pickleball.
Sleep affects all aspects of health and has huge effects on aging. Its vital. Aim for at least seven hours a night.
Part of that is having a goal in life. The other is to have a partner or friends and family that are caring and loving around you. That will definitely reduce your amount of stress. Itll help you sleep, and itll make every day much more enjoyable as well, he says.
Chronic stress is a real problem for aging, he adds. It can rapidly shorten the ends of chromosome, the telomeres. We also know mainly from studies in the lab with mice is that if you manipulate the brain of the mouse to have more inflammation, it will age prematurely and vice versa if you lower the inflammation in the brain it can live longer.
We also know that if you turn gene No. 1 on in the mouses brain, itll be healthier and live longer. That tells me probably how our brains are functioning, how worried we are, how depressed we are can have major impacts on the aging of the rest of the body.
Remove the bad from the diet, and focus on nutritious foods:
I stopped eating dessert at age 40, though I still steal tastes, Sinclair says. Try to focus on fresh food if you can, and also I think plant-based mainly is the way to go for ultimate longevity based on a lot of data over the last few thousand years. We know that thats what you need to do.
I try to skip breakfast or have a very small breakfast, Sinclair says.
He has a few spoonfuls of homemade yogurt mixed with resveratrol if he does eat breakfast, then doesnt eat again until having a late lunch or even dinner on busy days. When he does eat lunch, he typically eats light, such as a salad without much dressing and possibly some fruit. He also consumes plenty of hot drinks that are low in caffeine to support immunity.
Then for dinner I eat mostly a plant-based diet, Sinclair says. Ill eat a little meat since I lift weights to help body recover but not a big red meat, steak guy. I dont think in the long run thats super healthy. Carnivore diets are OK short run, but I focus on eating plants that are picked freshly.
Sinclair describes these as activities that trick the body into feeling like its under threat, under adverse conditions, and it fights back. Thats hormesis. The definition of hormesis is to be uncomfortable, and that pays dividends in the long run.
For people who are in the second half of their life, its important to maintain flexibility and muscle strength. Lift some weights. Especially if youre in the first half of your life and all the way up to 80, you want to do high-intensity interval training, get your heart rate up to a safe level. It doesnt have to be for a half hour it can be as little as 10 minutes every few days. That alone has been shown to have remarkable protection against diseases of aging, says Sinclair.
Related: Can Reduced Brain Activity Boost Longevity?
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Longevity: The Keys to Slow the Aging Process - Dr. Axe
Melissa Nolan
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Those beautiful blue eyes you inherited from your mother are actually a result of a complex science known as Genetics. The scientific field of genetics studies genes in our DNA. Genes are units of heredity transferred from a parent to offspring and determine some characteristic of offspring. Your genes are responsible for coding all of your traits- including hair color, eye color, and so on. In recent years, scientists began exploring the concept of gene editing, which is the deliberate manipulation of genetic material to achieve desired results. Gene editing can potentially alter any given trait in an organism- from height to hair texture to susceptibility for certain diseases.
Gene editing applied to humans is referred to as Human Genetic Engineering, or HGE. There is extensive debate in and out of the scientific community regarding the ethics of HGE. Much of this debate stems from how this technology will affect society, and vice versa. Individuals may harbor concerns about the rise of designer babies or scientists playing God by determining the traits of an individual. On the contrary, HGE presents potential cures to diseases caused by genetic mutations. Human Genetic Engineering (HGE) is a novel technology which presents various ethical concerns and potential consequences. HGE should be approached cautiously and with extensive governmental regulation given its history, its current state, and the potential it has to change the world in the future.
Genetic Encoding of Proteins by MIT OpenCourseWare is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
HGE utilizes CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing tools to cut out specific genes and replace them with a newly designed gene.
HGE encompasses a variety of methods which all work to produce a deliberate change in the human genome. The most common and prevalent way to edit the human genome is via CRISPR/Cas9. CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, and Cas9 is a protein that functions as scissors to cut DNA/genes. The CRISPR/Cas9 system originally developed as a part of a bacterias immune system, which can recognize repeats in DNA of invading viruses, then cut them out. Since then, scientists have harnessed the CRISPR/Cas9 system to cut DNA sequences of their choice and then insert new DNA sequences in their place.
The CRISPR/Cas9 system allows for designer genomes, and rapid engineering of any cells programming. With the use of CRISPR/Cas9, scientists can cut out certain traits from an individuals cells and insert new traits into those same cells.
CRISPR Cas9 System by Marius Walter is licensed under CC-BY-SA-4.0
Gene therapy is a recently-developed technology which can be applied to both somatic and germline genome editing.
Gene therapy concepts were initially introduced in the 1960s, utilizing outdated methods, such as recombinant DNA technology and viral vectors, to edit microorganisms genomes. Recombinant DNA consists of genetic material from multiple sources. The first experiments involved transferring a genome from one bacteria to another via a viral vector. Soon after was the first successful transformation of human cells with foreign DNA. The success of the experiment prompted public concern over the ethics of gene therapy, and led to political regulation. In the gene therapy report of the Presidents Commission in the United States, germline genome editing was deemed problematic over somatic genome editing. Also, non-medical genome editing was deemed problematic over medical genome editing. Germline genome editing occurs when scientists alter the genome of an embryo, so that the entire organism has altered genes and the traits can be passed to offspring. Somatic genome editing involves editing only a few cells in the entire organism so that traits can not be passed down to offspring. In response to the report, the rDNA Advisory Committee of the National Institutes of Health was formed and proposed the first guidelines for the gene therapy clinical trials. This is an example of technological determinism, in which technology determines the development of its social structure and cultural values or regulations.
In the past few decades, gene editing has advanced exponentially, introducing state-of-the-art technologies such as the CRISPR/Cas9 system, which was developed to induce gene modifications at very specific target sites. Thus, gene editing became a major focus for medical research (Tamura, 2020). Gene editing has led to the potential for development of treatment strategies for a variety of diseases and cancers. So far, somatic genome editing has shown promise in treating leukemia, melanoma, and a variety of other diseases. In this way, HGE may be demonstrative of cultural determinism, in which the culture we are raised presents certain issues which necessitate the development of a specific technology.
DNA CRISPR Scissors by Max Pixel is licensed under CC0 1.0
CRISPR/Cas9 is the primary technology proposed for use in HGE. HGE presents a variety of pros and cons to society.
Somatic genome editing in HGE via the CRISPR/Cas9 system has proven to be effective at editing specific genome sites. Since 2015, genome editing technologies have been used in over 30 human clinical trials and have shown positive patient outcomes. The treatment of disease may be a positive benefit of HGE, but there are also various potential risks. Various forms of deliberative democracies formed in recent years to address scientific and ethical concerns in HGE. Deliberative democracies afrm the need to justify technological decisions made by citizens and their representatives with experts in the field via deliberation. Overall, the consensus remains that the pros and cons of HGE are not equivalent enough to justify widespread use of the technology.
Current human clinical trials show successful transformation of human immune cells to HIV-resistant cells. This implies that HGE may be the cure for HIV(Hu, 2019). Other successful somatic genome editing trials treated myeloma, leukemia, sickle cell disease, various forms of epithelial cancers, and hemophilia. Thus, gene editing has provided novel treatment options for congenital diseases and cancers (Tamaura, 2020). Congenital diseases are those present from birth, and typically have a genetic cause. For these reasons, scientific summits concluded HGE is ethical for research regarding somatic genome editing in congenital diseases and cancers.
There are many safety concerns regarding CRISPR applications, mainly in germline genome editing. As a result of technological determinism, a leading group of CRISPR/Cas9 scientists and ethicists met for the international Summit on Human Gene Editing. The summit determined that heritable genome research trials may be permitted only following extensive research on risks and benefits of HGE. However, the summit concluded that federal funding cannot be used to support research involving human embryos with germline editing techniques. These decisions were made to avoid potential risks such as the following.
The major concerns regarding germline genome editing in HGE include: serious injury or disability, a blurry line between therapeutic applications of HGE and medical applications, misapplications, potential for eugenics ( the study of how to arrange reproduction within a human population to increase the occurrence of heritable characteristics regarded as desirable), and inequitable access to the technology.
HGE is a complex technology which presents a variety of risk factors for the coming decades. Deliberative democracy is necessary to keep this technology in check, ethically.
The future of HGE is uncertain and requires immense forethought. The American Society of Human Genetics workgroup developed a position statement on human germline engineering. The statement argues that it is inappropriate to perform germline gene editing that culminates in human pregnancy; and that in vitro(outside of an organism) germline editing should be permitted with appropriate oversight. It also states future clinical human germline editing requires ethical justification, compelling medical rationale, and evidence that supports its clinical usage. Many of these decisions were made based on the potential concerts over the future possibilities of the technology.
At the societal level, there may be concerns related to eugenics, social justice, and accessibility to technology. Eugenics could potentially reinforce prejudice and enforce exclusivity in certain physical traits. Traits can be preselected for, thus labeling some as good and others as unfavorable. This may perpetuate existing racist ideals, for example.
Moreover, germline genome editing may also increase the amount of inequality in a society. Human germline editing is likely to be very expensive and access may be limited to certain geographic regions, health systems, or socioeconomic statuses. Even if human genetic engineering is only used for medical purposes, genetic disease could become an artifact of class, location, or ethnic group. Therefore, preclinical trials are necessary to establish validity, safety, and efficacy before any wide scale studies are initiated.
Others argue that HGE may lessen genetic diversity in a human population, creating a biological monoculture that could lead to disease susceptibility and eventual extinction. Analyses have predicted that there will be negligible effect on diversity and will more likely ensure the health and longevity of humans (Russel, 2010). Legacy thinking may be responsible for the hesitations towards continuing forward with HGE, as there are also many potential pros for genetic engineering. Legacy thinking is using outdated thinking strategies and actions which may not be useful anymore.
In an alternative modernity, we can imagine HGE as an end-all for most congenital diseases and cancers. Moreover, it may be used in germline gene editing to prevent certain birth defects or heritable diseases. So, although HGE has a variety of potential risk factors, there is also great promise for novel medical therapies in the coming decades. The continued use of this technology should be approached cautiously and with extensive governmental regulation, allowing for research regarding its medical applications only.
In 2016, germline gene editing was proven feasible and effective in chickens by leading researchers in genetic engineering, Dimitrov and colleagues. In this study, scientists used CRISPR/Cas9 to target the gene for an antibody/ immunoglobulin commonly produced in chickens. Antibodies are proteins produced in immune response. In the resulting population, the chickens grew normally and healthily with modified antibodies which conferred drug resistance. This study was the first to prove that germline editing is both feasible and effective.
HGE is a rapidly expanding field of research which presents novel possibilities for the coming decades. HGE utilizes CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing tools to cut out specific genes and replace them with a newly designed gene. As important as this technology is, it is also important to recognize how new it is. Gene therapy research began in the 1960s, with somatic cell editing only commencing in the past two decades. This has presented many advantages for the potential treatment of congenital diseases, but also presents various risks. Those risks stem from germline gene editing and include eugenics and inequitable access to the technology creating large socio economic divides. In the future, more regulation should be placed on the advancement of HGE research before larger-scale studies take place.
1. What is the primary technology proposed for use in HGE?
A. Recombinant DNA technology
B. CRISPR/Cas9
C. Bacterial Transformation
D. Immunoglobulin
2. When was gene therapy concepts first introduced?
A. 1920s
B. 1940s
C. 1960s
D. 1980s
3. What is a major ethical concern regarding HGE addressed in this chapter?
A. Potential for ageism
B. Gene editing is only 50% effective
C. HGE can only be used in Caucasians
D. Potential for eugenics
Answers:
Baltimore, D. et. al.(2015). A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab1028
Brokowski, C., & Adli, M. (2019). CRISPR Ethics: Moral Considerations for Applications of a Powerful Tool. Journal of Molecular Biology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2018.05.044
Cong, L., Ran, F., & Zhang, F. (2013). Multiplex Genome Engineering Using CRISPR/Cas9 Systems. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231143
Dimitrov, L., et. al. (2016). Germline Gene Editing in Chickens by Efficient CRISPR-Mediated Homologous Recombination in Primordial Germ Cells. Plos One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154303
Hu, C. (2019). Safety of Transplantation of CRISPR CCR5 Modified CD34+ Cells in HIV-Infected Subjects with Hematological Malignancies. U.S National Library of Medicine. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03164135
Ormond, K., et. al.(2017). Human Germline Genome Editing. AJHG. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.012
Russell P.(2010) The Evolutionary Biological Implications of Human Genetic Engineering, The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/jhq004
Tamura, R., & Toda, M. (2020). Historic Overview of Genetic Engineering Technologies for Human Gene Therapy. Neurologia medico-chirurgica. https://doi.org/10.2176/nmc.ra.2020-0049
Thomas, C. (2020). CRISPR-Edited Allogeneic Anti-CD19 CAR-T Cell Therapy for Relapsed/Refractory B Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma. ClinicalTrials. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04637763
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18 Human Genetic Engineering - Clemson University
Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genetic composition of plants, animals, and humans. The most practical application of genetic engineering is to create a more sustainable food system for the people of Earth, but there are other ways we can use it to our advantage as well.
Unfortunately, there are both pros and cons of genetic engineering. For every benefit, there is a list of concerns and potential problems we need to consider. There is a substantive argument on both sides of genetic engineering, and well explore both ahead.
Most people tend to focus on the negatives of genetic engineering, but there are some substantial positive we need to consider as well. Genetic engineering is a debate, and there are some good points on each side. You have to look at both the pros and cons of genetic engineering if you want to make an informed decision on the matter.
Evolution takes thousands of years to adapt to our surroundings, but genetic engineering offers a quicker path forward. With the assistance of genetic engineering, we could force our bodies to adapt to the changing climate of our planet.
Additionally, we could tack-on some extra years to our lives by altering our cells, so our bodies dont deteriorate as quickly as they currently do. The fountain of youth might be within our reach, and many look forward to advancements in the area of genetic engineering.
If we choose to go down this path, well feel better as we age and be able to outlast some of the diseases that currently take us down. We still wont be able to live forever, but genetic engineering shows promise in extending the prime of our lives.
Food shortage is a massive problem in the world, especially with the growing population. Were destroying natural habitats to make way for farmland, and overgrazing is causing current pastures to become dry and uninhabited.
The answer to this problem could come in the form of genetic engineering. If we can alter the composition of vegetables and animals, we can create new foods that might have more nutritional value than nature creates on its own.
We might even be able to advance to a point where foods give us medicines we need to combat widespread viruses and illnesses. Food is one of the most promising spaces when considering the prospect of genetic engineering.
A lot of diseases depend on genetic predisposition. Some people are more likely to get cancer, Alzheimers and other diseases than their neighbor. With genetic engineering, we can get rid of these genetic predispositions once and for all.
There will likely still be some environmental concerns that will cause diseases, but if we start altering the genes of humans, we may become resistant to genetic abnormalities. Family history wont mean anything when it comes to things like cancer, and we can start eliminating diseases that are completely based on genetics.
There are already a handful of diseases and illnesses we can detect while a baby is still in the womb. We even can genetically engineer some diseases and illnesses out of a babys system before theyre born.
Finding out your baby has a disease can be devastating, and some parents make the difficult choice to spare their child possible pain. If you know that your baby might suffer and die a few months after theyre born, you have to decide whether or not you want to roll the dice.
In the future, we might be able to eliminate the chances of unhealthy babies. Diseases like Huntingtons offer a substantial chance that the carrier will pass it onto their child. If the child isnt positive for the disease, theyll still be a carrier and have to deal with the same dilemma when it comes time to have kids of their own.
Genetic engineering has the potential to stop these threats in their tracks. Parents wont have to worry about birthing a healthy son or daughter. Science will guarantee that every baby is happy and healthy when they come into this world.
Of course, genetic engineering isnt entirely positive. There is an upside to the ability to genetically alter humans and animals, but only in ideal situations.
Our world isnt perfect, and scientists make mistakes all the time. We cant assume that genetic engineering will be available to the entirety of the human population, which is a flaw in itself.
The negatives of genetic engineering seem to outweigh the positives, especially since there is so much room for error. We dont know what were tampering with, which opens the door to a host of potential problems.
There are a couple of ethical problems with genetic engineering that we need to consider as a society. Those who subscribe to religion will see genetic engineering as blasphemy, for instance. Wed be playing God, in a sense. Anyone who believes in creation will be expressly against genetic engineering especially in human children.
Those who are on the opposite side of the spectrum from religious people probably wont love genetic engineering either. Genetically engineered food might work, but changing the genes of people will add to the overpopulation problem were currently experiencing.
Diseases are one of the most effective forms of population control. We dont have the heart to eliminate other humans in the name of population control, so disease does it for us. If we eliminate diseases, humans will have virtually no threat left on this planet.
Living longer lives might be ideal, but it isnt practical. If we extend the prime of our lives, were opening the door to having more children. Since all children would be in perfect health, well see a population increase that could have devastating consequences.
If genetic engineering becomes a reality, it will likely only be available to the richest members of society. Theyll be able to extend their lives, limit diseases, and make sure their children are always healthy when theyre born
When this happens, natural selection is completely obsolete. Instead, the wealthiest in society will thrive while the poor will die-out. Eventually, genetic diversity will completely disappear as genetically engineered children all express the most desirable characteristics
This problem also arises in nature if we decide to engineer plants and animals genetically. These organisms might start as food, but could introduce themselves to the wild and take over. Theyll decimate natural species, and eventually be the only thing left.
One of the biggest hurdles in genetic engineering is the possibility of errors or genetic defects, especially in humans. Scientists have a general understanding of what creates a functioning human, but they dont yet have all the pieces to the puzzle.
When it comes down to changing humans at a cellular level, scientists dont yet have the understanding of how small changes can affect the development of a growing baby. Changing genes could result in more damaging birth defects or even miscarriages.
Furthermore, tampering with diseases could end up creating a super-disease that is even harder to combat. There are too many variables in the human body for genetic engineering to work to the fullest potential. Even if it could, people will probably be too nervous to trust scientists tampering with the cells of their future children.
Science still isnt at a point where they can alter the genes of humans to prevent all diseases in unborn children, but it might be there soon. When that time comes, some might take genetic engineering to its logical extreme.
Our priority will be to create healthy children. Once we perfect this process, though, where to, we go? The next logical step is the ability to pick certain traits that our children will have. We might be able to select whether we have a boy or girl. Then, we can decide what eye color and hair color they have.
Pretty soon, were selecting every trait that our child has before they leave the womb. Nature will be virtually out of the question at this point, and people with enough money will design their babies from scratch.
Since the pros and cons of genetic engineering are compelling, its worth it to explore the possibility further. We still havent reached a place where scientists fully understand the opportunities genetic engineering presents, so they still have years of research on their hands.
In the end, though, no system of genetically altering humans, animals, or plants will be perfect. There is a massive potential for errors, and we likely wont have equal opportunities if and when scientists ever crack the case.
Although the positives of genetic engineering are convincing, the negatives can be terrifying. If we ever get to the point where we can genetically alter humans, we need to consider the moral, ethical, and practical application of technology before going any further.
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Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering - Benefits and Risks
How artificial skin is made and its uses, from treating burns to skin cancer South China Morning Post
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How artificial skin is made and its uses, from treating burns to skin cancer - South China Morning Post
BIORESTORATIVE THERAPIES, INC. MANAGEMENT'S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS. (form 10-K) Marketscreener.com
Why do scientists study the genes of other organisms?
All living things evolved from a common ancestor. Therefore, humans, animals, and other organisms share many of the same genes, and the molecules made from them function in similar ways.
Scientists have found many genes that have been preserved through millions of years of evolution and are present in a range of organisms living today. They can study these preserved genes and compare the genomes of different species to uncover similarities and differences that improve their understanding of how human genes function and are controlled. This knowledge helps researchers develop new strategies to treat and prevent human disease. Scientists also study the genes of bacteria, viruses, and fungi for solutions to prevent or treat infection. Increasingly, these studies are offering insight into how microbes on and in the body affect our health, sometimes in beneficial ways.
Increasingly sophisticated tools and techniques are allowing NIGMS-funded scientists to ask more precise questions about the genetic basis of biology. For example, theyre studying the factors that control when genes are active, the mechanisms DNA uses to repair broken or damaged segments, and the complex ways traits are passed to future generations. Another focus of exploration involves tracing genetic variation over time to detail human evolutionary history and to pinpoint the emergence of disease-related attributes. These areas of basic research will continue to build a strong foundation for more disease-targeted studies.
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Genetics - National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS)